Learn English and English Literature

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Welcome Back After 5 Years.

Hello Folks!I made this blog like seven years ago. I was a student of English Literature back then, now I have Masters degree in English Linguistics and I am planning to revive this blog. Let's bring…

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04 Feb 2016

Useful if adapted to read literature in English?

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<span class="">Is it worth it to read the adapted literature in English, or to start with the original? </span>On the Internet, a lot of opinions are on this subject, so we decided to give you a simple and clear answer, based on the experience of our English teaching experience.</div>
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When you open the book, you open your mind (new knowledge).</div>
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<span style="color: #231f20; font-family: OpenSansItalic, 'Open Sans', Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 24px;">In this article, we will describe in detail about whether to read </span><span style="color: #231f20; font-family: OpenSansItalic, 'Open Sans', Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 24px;">adapted</span><span style="color: #231f20; font-family: OpenSansItalic, 'Open Sans', Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 24px;"> </span><span style="color: #231f20; font-family: OpenSansItalic, 'Open Sans', Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 24px;">literature in any level of knowledge and whether you want to use a dictionary while reading or not.</span><br />
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Who should read adapted literature ?</h2>
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We will not torment you, everyone has to read uusefuladapted texts at appropriate level. There is a myth that the adapted literature is a "pale face" and  "dry exposition" of the original work. In fact it is not. Indeed, these books contain less idioms, less complex metaphors, similes and vivid specific terms.However, the story remains the same, and the benefits of reading is not reduced!</div>
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Some people believe that it is necessary to start with reading books in the original, even if you're just starting to learn English. In most cases, it is advised to read fairy tales, children's stories. However, we wish to note that the literature for children can contain a fairly large amount of vocabulary is not very necessary for everyday communication (all the "princess", "fairy", "magic wands" can never come in handy).</div>
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And if you start with the classics? Non-adapted works of William Shakespeare are sometimes hard to understand even with the level of Upper-Intermediate . Oh, there are so many unused English archaisms.</div>
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<a href="http://englex.ru/wp-content/uploads/242398473.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img alt="Spike Milligan" border="0" class="quote_img" height="100" src="http://englex.ru/wp-content/uploads/242398473.jpg" style="border-radius: 50px;" title="Spike Milligan" width="100" /></a>I thought I'd begin by reading a poem by Shakespeare, but then I thought, why should I? He never reads any of mine.</div>
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Spike Milligan</div>
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Read contemporaries? Well, it is useful, interesting, but hardly any Beginner and Pre-Intermediate student will be delighted at the prospect of diving in the dictionary to find every third or fourth word. A man may dislike reading in English, or even worse - to abandon the idea of language learning in general. According to our teachers, the optimal number of unfamiliar vocabulary in the text is around about 5-15%. With this amount of unfamiliar words you can guess the meaning of most of context, but it is much more useful and interesting than the endless immersion in the dictionary. In addition, the reading of this text will not be difficult, you will understand what is at stake, and you can get a real pleasure to work with the book.</div>
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Therefore, we recommend buying a specially adapted literature. Please note, usually on the book indicates what level of knowledge it corresponds. However, we recommend you to view many pages to finally make sure that it suits you. There is a little secret that they know some fans of the books: do not view the first page, look in the middle - in the middle of the product, you will see the true level of sophistication and style of the author. Usually, the first few pages, even adapted text books are little more complicated in start than in the middle.</div>
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<span style="font-size: 26px; line-height: 36px;">Adapted publications have several advantages</span></div>
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<li style="margin: 12px 0px;">In the adapted texts are usually used most frequently used words. That is why it is called as "adaptation": rarely used complex vocabulary is replaced by a simple and frequently used vocabulary of native speakers.</li>
<li style="margin: 12px 0px;">Often at the end of the book is a glossary. You do not need to search for additional manuals.</li>
<li style="margin: 12px 0px;">After reading the chapter you are invited to perform several tasks: you are free to check how well you understand the meaning of reading. Usually you need to answer questions about the content, analyze the actions of the main character, and so on. We recommend to perform such tasks aloud at the same time so you excel in oral communication skills too.</li>
<li style="margin: 12px 0px;">Excellent understanding of the text motivates further study of the English language.</li>
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When can I refuse to read the adapted literature?</h2>
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If you have reached the level of Intermediate , you can try to read the original texts. However, do not rush to seize gladly "To Kill A Mockingbird" by Harper Lee or "Jane Eyre" by Charlotte Bronte. Start with books with a simpler vocabulary, such as the romantic saga "Twilight", trendy "Hunger games" or the popular "Harry Potter". Lovers of literature are more serious, you can start with short stories of Hemingway or Maugham, and try to read Stephen King. The plot is probably familiar to you, not so many flowery phrases are readily enjoyable.</div>
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<a href="http://englex.ru/wp-content/uploads/347289127.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img alt="Cicero" border="0" class="quote_img" height="100" src="http://englex.ru/wp-content/uploads/347289127.jpg" style="border-radius: 50px;" title="Cicero" width="100" /></a><div class="quote_text" style="color: #9d5da8; font-size: 24px; line-height: 34px; margin-bottom: 20px; margin-top: 20px;">
A home without books is a body without soul.</div>
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Cicero</div>
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How often should you look in the dictionary?</h2>
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You've probably heard more than once that when reading guess the meaning of words out of context and work less with the dictionary. Sometimes, however, you can not do without a dictionary, for example, in such situations:</div>
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<li style="margin: 12px 0px;">Word plays an important role in the proposal and has the primary meaning, and you can not guess its meaning from the context, you have several choices. In this case, of course you are supposed to look in the dictionary, so as not to lose the thread of the argument of the author.</li>
<li style="margin: 12px 0px;">The words which are often found in the text. <span class="goog-text-highlight" style="-webkit-box-shadow: rgb(153, 153, 170) 2px 2px 4px; background-color: #c9d7f1; box-shadow: rgb(153, 153, 170) 2px 2px 4px; box-sizing: border-box; position: relative;">From this we can conclude that it may often used colloquially speakers. </span>In this case, it is better not to guess, and find out the exact meaning of the word and enrich their vocabulary.</li>
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We hope that our article has interested you, and you will be happy to dive into the world of fiction in English. Happy reading!</div>
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Useful if adapted to read literature in English?

Is it worth it to read the adapted literature in English, or to start with the original? On the Internet, a lot of opinions are on this subject, so we decided to give you a simple and clear answer, b…

26 Jan 2015

Children's Literature in English - determined by the choice

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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">When properly selected literature learning process should be very exciting - it's not boring grammar exercises. Interesting book you can take with you on vacation, or look through it while standing in the public transport traffic. And time will fly faster and obvious benefits. With proper practice, you do not have to be afraid of difficult dialogues on highly specialized topics.</span></div>
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<strong><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">What book to choose?</span></strong></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Children's literature in English is very diverse. Not very well chosen book may require the reader to a high level of training and, therefore, the reading will be tedious and your child can quickly get bored. Optimally start with </span><span style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">entry level </span><span style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">children's literature.</span><span style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Read nursery rhymes and children's poems.</span><span style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> Even if t</span><span style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">hey have solid age, but these are loved by children today.</span><span style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span><span class="" style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">For example, kittens, lost gloves, more than four hundred years, and the three wise men in the same basin was considered appropriate back in the sixteenth century. </span><span style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Popular Mother Goose in English verse speaks exclusively.</span><span style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">No </span><span style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">morals, only contagious laughter and a little respect for the readers.</span><span style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Without it Childhood is impossible. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">British valued family above all else, so their good books for children are smart and interesting. Remember, some English writers you know from childhood, and select one of these works in English. Most likely, you do not even need a dictionary to understand what is in them.</span></div>
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<strong><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">For example, you can pay attention to the following well-known authors of the book:</span></strong></div>
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<li style="background: url(http://www.englishneo.ru/wp-content/themes/blogenglish/images/postbullets.png) 0px 3px no-repeat; border-bottom-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: #990000; line-height: 21.4500007629395px; margin: 0px; overflow-x: visible; overflow-y: hidden; padding: 0px 0px 0px 13px;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Dickenson</span></li>
<li style="background: url(http://www.englishneo.ru/wp-content/themes/blogenglish/images/postbullets.png) 0px 3px no-repeat; border-bottom-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: #990000; line-height: 21.4500007629395px; margin: 0px; overflow-x: visible; overflow-y: hidden; padding: 0px 0px 0px 13px;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Scott</span></li>
<li style="background: url(http://www.englishneo.ru/wp-content/themes/blogenglish/images/postbullets.png) 0px 3px no-repeat; border-bottom-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: #990000; line-height: 21.4500007629395px; margin: 0px; overflow-x: visible; overflow-y: hidden; padding: 0px 0px 0px 13px;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Kipling</span></li>
<li style="background: url(http://www.englishneo.ru/wp-content/themes/blogenglish/images/postbullets.png) 0px 3px no-repeat; border-bottom-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: #990000; line-height: 21.4500007629395px; margin: 0px; overflow-x: visible; overflow-y: hidden; padding: 0px 0px 0px 13px;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Stevenson</span></li>
<li style="background: url(http://www.englishneo.ru/wp-content/themes/blogenglish/images/postbullets.png) 0px 3px no-repeat; border-bottom-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: #990000; line-height: 21.4500007629395px; margin: 0px; overflow-x: visible; overflow-y: hidden; padding: 0px 0px 0px 13px;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Carroll<em id="__mceDel"><br /></em></span></li>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><strong>Features English works</strong></span><img alt="A child in a chair and a wardrobe with writers" class="alignleft size-full wp-image-1605" height="160" src="http://www.englishneo.ru/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/bookkids.jpg" style="border: 0px solid rgb(178, 194, 209); float: left; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 8px;" width="170" /><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Excluding works with a strong romantic beginning, the whole British children's literature can be described as follows.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Almost all children's works in English are imbued with subtle lyricism, light gentleman irony, sometimes even slip of satire. Gorky characterized this feature as a desire to turn inside out all the usual and ordinary and replace it with a fantastic story, alogism. Sometimes it seems absurd, but this is more fun. Takes great effort to convey all these colors in any other language, the more valuable your desire the more you become familiar with the original.</span></div>
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Children's Literature in English - determined by the choice

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Learn Adjectives and Their Degree Of Comparision

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10 Nov 2014

Of Love By Francis Bacon

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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'times new roman', serif; font-size: 17px; line-height: 22.4640007019043px;">THE stage is more beholding to love, than the life of man. For as to the stage, love is ever matter of comedies, and now and then of tragedies; but in life it doth much mischief; sometimes like a siren, sometimes like a fury. You may observe, that amongst all the great and worthy persons (whereof the memory remaineth, either ancient or recent) there is not one, that hath been transported to the mad degree of love: which shows that great spirits, and great business, do keep out this weak passion. You must except, nevertheless, Marcus Antonius, the half partner of the empire of Rome, and Appius Claudius, the decemvir and lawgiver; whereof the former was indeed a voluptuous man, and inordinate; but the latter was an austere and wise man: and therefore it seems (though rarely) that love can find entrance, not only into an open heart, but also into a heart well fortified, if watch be not well kept. It is a poor saying of Epicurus, Satis magnum alter alteri theatrum sumus; as if man, made for the contemplation of heaven, and all noble objects, should do nothing but kneel before a little idol, and make himself a subject, though not of the mouth (as beasts are), yet of the eye; which was given him for higher purposes. It is a strange thing, to note the excess of this passion, and how it braves the nature, and value of things, by this; that the speaking in a perpetual hyperbole, is comely in nothing but in love. Neither is it merely in the phrase; for whereas it hath been well said, that the arch-flatterer, with whom all the petty flatterers have intelligence, is a man’s self; certainly the lover is more. For there was never proud man thought so absurdly well of himself, as the lover doth of the person loved; and therefore it was well said, That it is impossible to love, and to be wise. Neither doth this weakness appear to others only, and not to the party loved; but to the loved most of all, except the love be reciproque. For it is a true rule, that love is ever rewarded, either with the reciproque, or with an inward and secret contempt. By how much the more, men ought to beware of this passion, which loseth not only other things, but itself! As for the other losses, the poet’s relation doth well figure them: that he that preferred Helena, quitted the gifts of Juno and Pallas. For whosoever esteemeth too much of amorous affection, quitteth both riches and wisdom. This passion hath his floods, in very times of weakness; which are great prosperity, and great adversity; though this latter hath been less observed: both which times kindle love, and make it more fervent, and therefore show it to be the child of folly. They do best, who if they cannot but admit love, yet make it keep quarters; and sever it wholly from their serious affairs, and actions, of life; for if it check once with business, it troubleth men’s fortunes, and maketh men, that they can no ways be true to their own ends. I know not how, but martial men are given to love: I think, it is but as they are given to wine; for perils commonly ask to be paid in pleasures. There is in man’s nature, a secret inclination and motion, towards love of others, which if it be not spent upon some one or a few, doth naturally spread itself towards many, and maketh men become humane and charitable; as it is seen sometime in friars. Nuptial love maketh mankind; friendly love perfecteth it; but wanton love corrupteth, and embaseth it.</span></div>

Of Love By Francis Bacon

THE stage is more beholding to love, than the life of man. For as to the stage, love is ever matter of comedies, and now and then of tragedies; but in life it doth much mischief; sometimes like a sir…

10 Nov 2014

Ariel by Sylvia Plath

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<h2 style="background-color: white; color: #333333; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Ariel</span></h2>
<h3 style="background-color: white; color: #333333; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">by Sylvia Plath</span></h3>
<table class="poem" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px auto 2em; white-space: pre;"><tbody>
<tr><td><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">
<span style="font-size: small;">
Stasis in darkness.
Then the substanceless blue
Pour of tor and distances.

God's lioness,
How one we grow,
Pivot of heels and knees!--The furrow

Splits and passes, sister to
The brown arc
Of the neck I cannot catch,

Nigger-eye
Berries cast dark
Hooks----

Black sweet blood mouthfuls,
Shadows.
Something else

Hauls me through air----
Thighs, hair;
Flakes from my heels.

White
Godiva, I unpeel----
Dead hands, dead stringencies.

And now I
Foam to wheat, a glitter of seas.
The child's cry

Melts in the wall.
And I 
Am the arrow,

The dew that flies,
Suicidal, at one with the drive
Into the red

Eye, the cauldron of morning.</span></span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>

Ariel by Sylvia Plath

Ariel by Sylvia Plath Stasis in darkness. Then the substanceless blue Pour of tor and distances. God's lioness, How one we grow, Pivot of heels and knees!--The furrow Splits and passes, sister to The…

07 Jul 2014

Learning The Past Tense:

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<h1 style="background-color: cyan; text-align: -webkit-center;">
Learning The Past Tense                                            <b>Look at these verbs:</b></h1>
<table align="center" border="2" cellpadding="20" valign="top"><tbody>
<tr><td valign="center"><b>Present<br />(Today)</b>talk<br />walk <br />play <br />laugh <br />help <br />ask <br />answer <br />shout <br />finish <br />look</td><td valign="TOP"><b>Past Tense:<br />(Yesterday)</b>talked<br />walked<br />played<br />laughed<br />helped<br />asked<br />answered<br />shouted<br />finished<br />looked<br /><b></b></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div style="background-color: cyan; text-align: -webkit-center;">
</div>
<hr style="background-color: cyan; text-align: -webkit-center;" />
<b style="background-color: cyan; text-align: -webkit-center;">Change these sentences into the Past Tense.</b><br />
<div style="background-color: cyan; text-align: -webkit-center;">
<span style="color: red;"><i>For example:<br />Jane talk<b>s</b> to the teacher.<br />Jane talk<b>ed</b> to the teacher.</i></span></div>
<div style="background-color: cyan; text-align: -webkit-center;">
1. The students walk to their lessons.<br />2. The children play in the park.<br />3. They laugh at the joke.<br />4. The good students help their teacher with the books.<br />5. She asks him a question about the homework.<br />6. The student answers the question.<br />7. The angry teacher shouts at the naughty students.<br />8. When they finish reading, they look at the pictures.</div>
<div style="background-color: cyan; text-align: -webkit-center;">
</div>
<hr style="background-color: cyan; text-align: -webkit-center;" />
<b style="background-color: cyan; text-align: -webkit-center;">Now look at these special verbs:</b><br />
<table align="center" border="2" cellpadding="20" valign="top"><tbody>
<tr><td valign="center"><b>Present<br />(Today)</b>am / are / is<br />do <br />can <br />have / has <br />go <br />run <br />speak <br />learn <br />drive <br />eat <br />cry <br />hurry <br />stop </td><td valign="TOP"><b>Past Tense:<br />(Yesterday)</b>was<br />did<br />could<br />had<br />went<br />ran<br />spoke<br />learnt<br />drove<br />ate<br />cried<br />hurried<br />stopped<br /><b></b></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<hr style="background-color: cyan; text-align: -webkit-center;" />
<b style="background-color: cyan; text-align: -webkit-center;">Change these sentences into the Present Tense:</b><br />
<div style="background-color: cyan; text-align: -webkit-center;">
1. Ahmed was in the school football team.<br />2. I did basketball on Saturday afternoons.<br />3. We went to the cinema at weekends.<br />4. You ran around the playing fields.<br />5. Sofia and Rahma spoke English very well and learnt the exercise quickly.<br />6. Ahmed drove a big red car, but had an accident.<br />7. I cried when the story was sad.<br />8. They hurried home from school and stopped at the shop for sweets.</div>
</div>

Learning The Past Tense:

Learning The Past Tense Look at these verbs: Present(Today)talkwalk play laugh help ask answer shout finish lookPast Tense:(Yesterday)talkedwalkedplayedlaug…

22 Jun 2014

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<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>How to learn English fast?<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Many, people are asking just one question, as it is related
to their lives. As, it is very helpful for them, to walk confidently in
different phases toward success. However, they seem to ask just one question.
The question is, How to learn English fast. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Many of the reviews have been given as the answers of their
question. However, they look unsatisfied look unsatisfied still. The question
raises that why they are still unsatisfied. The answer is satisfactory up to
some extent, however. They may be misguided. Many of the online courses are
available; still the demand to know the answer of this question is growing.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Instead of knowing answers from others, it is necessary to
ask yourself. If you will concern to different moneymakers to ask, they will
surely give you some materials. However, you should ask yourself, how to learn
English fast. Your mind is the best machine to provide the answer of this
question. You should motivate you mind for fast learning. If you want to buy such
machine, which claims to affect your speed of learning English, you are on
wrong way. The first thing is to motivate you in learning process. You must
have the passion of learning process. If you have the passion of the learning,
you will never ask no one that, how to learn English fast. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
I am not in a way to misguide any one, nor have I to sell my
learning English videos. However, it is a kind of review, I liked to write on.
You can disagree with my review or like it. However, if you want to add comments,
the space is available. </div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
You can concern to related articles on this blog. Thank you
for concerning.</div>
</div>

How to learn English fast? Many, people are asking just one question, as it is related to their lives. As, it is very helpful for them, to walk confidently in different phases toward success. However…

20 Jun 2014

Let us know about proposal writing:

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<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Let us know about proposal writing:<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>What is proposal writing?<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Proposal writing can be defined as a formal piece of
writing, which is written to gain support for planning through information.
Mostly, the proposals are written to companies to inform them about the
qualities you have to do their work. However, there are different methods to
write proposal. One of the unique method, I have chosen for you, so that if you
need to write, you get easy way to impress someone. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Method to write a Proposal:<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
You are well familiar with the formal writing. In this
method, you write in a formal way; not much frank, but objectively. When you
write a proposal, you need a proper method. If you want to make it much
impressive, you should concern to this method. The method is given below. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The very first thing you need to mention is the issue and
the main purpose of writing proposal. For example, if a company needs a project
to be implemented, you must inform them the process, how will you solve that
problem? You are to inform them in a objective way. You are to provide them
some logical reasoning to solve their problem. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
 For the next, you are
to concern to your audience. There might be some questions. For example, why
should they prefer your proposal? How to polish your proposal to meet the
desires and expectations of your audience? <b><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
  Next, you are to add a unique style to impress
your audience. You need to focus on the ideas about, how to tackle the
attentions of that organization or the audience?</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Finally, you are to make an outline, where, you are to
sketch you ideas. You are to write the solutions of the problems. You are to mention
your abilities to solve the problem. At the end, you are to conclude it in a very
precise manner.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Therefore, this is about proposal writing. I will be adding some
more things to help you in different formal writing methods. Thanks for reading.
Stay connected with this blog.</div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</div>

Let us know about proposal writing:

Let us know about proposal writing: What is proposal writing? Proposal writing can be defined as a formal piece of writing, which is written to gain support for planning through information. Mostly, …

20 Jun 2014

Daud Kamal Photos

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Here are some of the Daud kamal Photos.<br />
<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhNWwynxKc85FhNcOyNpxYfNek1eUb-oLL4c24-FGVyXN2xIGQxAmCOhyphenhyphenZSUnzKls1nFDKFgGRaVv_eYITZhG-D-7gCJRlGJ5T-0mqWXfxKGv9305BkNW5GENTTmi-XrNaKDE7PK5S6ocHF/s1600/carlo-coppola.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhNWwynxKc85FhNcOyNpxYfNek1eUb-oLL4c24-FGVyXN2xIGQxAmCOhyphenhyphenZSUnzKls1nFDKFgGRaVv_eYITZhG-D-7gCJRlGJ5T-0mqWXfxKGv9305BkNW5GENTTmi-XrNaKDE7PK5S6ocHF/s1600/carlo-coppola.jpg" /></a></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiKa0B4q7ztTsD7YTDv90vl-TQEO5OIP9fzsHGCmrBCpPpc9DKFR_jYmaw8vH5IHN89nCYfw637T5jl2_Q0BLWaj0eXqUPqdx3Q-qCUZohT-0yWFAxDp-JyrkFjRLVPloB1BLaHAJrW4Xn-/s1600/Daud+Kama+l.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiKa0B4q7ztTsD7YTDv90vl-TQEO5OIP9fzsHGCmrBCpPpc9DKFR_jYmaw8vH5IHN89nCYfw637T5jl2_Q0BLWaj0eXqUPqdx3Q-qCUZohT-0yWFAxDp-JyrkFjRLVPloB1BLaHAJrW4Xn-/s1600/Daud+Kama+l.jpg" width="340" /></a></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiWPFJtgHdS5X0UfYaIHnbGtAH-XgDCOgDpcejy6T9cAOsGsmd9ZXdgYpsw-1Oz57c45t3gxuyGQX6vp-AnA2bBuPbXioHK3Ke2FMnQhwlYdCUGZfljO75xTD8XJHUTkj-FMkSVqJ8z4tBU/s1600/Daud+Kamal+in+Older+Age.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiWPFJtgHdS5X0UfYaIHnbGtAH-XgDCOgDpcejy6T9cAOsGsmd9ZXdgYpsw-1Oz57c45t3gxuyGQX6vp-AnA2bBuPbXioHK3Ke2FMnQhwlYdCUGZfljO75xTD8XJHUTkj-FMkSVqJ8z4tBU/s1600/Daud+Kamal+in+Older+Age.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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Daud Kamal Photos

Here are some of the Daud kamal Photos. …

14 Jun 2014

An Ode To Death by Daud Kamal

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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;">An Ode To Death <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div>
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<i><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Your
ode to death is in the lifting of a single eyebrow. Lift it and see. (Conrad
Aiken)<o:p></o:p></span></span></i></div>
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<i><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></i></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Death is more than certain, says e.e Cummings,<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">But the clocks go on ticking as before<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And in every particle of carbon dust<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">There lives a diamond dream<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">How many galaxies yet to be explored-<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">How many seeds in the pomegranate of time?<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The pine tree blasted by last year’s
Thunderbolt<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And the burn out match stick in my ashtray<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Look so terribly alike<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">I have sat by your bedside and felt<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Your sinking pulse. Are the hair and bones<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Really indestructible and how long<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Does it take for the eyes<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">To dissolve in the grave?<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Two streams mingle in a forgotten river.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Between the eye and the tear<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">There is the archipelago of naked rocks<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Only sleep and silence there-<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">No anchorage for grief.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">I, too, have wandered in a forest of
symbols<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And clutched at the harlots of memory.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">I have seen the “stars plummet to their
dark addresses”<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">I have felt your absence around my neck<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">But let bygones be bygones<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Who was the deceiver and who the deceived<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Was I on a floating island<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And were you on the shore?<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Which one of us moved away?</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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An Ode To Death by Daud Kamal

An Ode To Death Your ode to death is in the lifting of a single eyebrow. Lift it and see. (Conrad Aiken) Death is more than certain, says e.e Cummings, But the clocks go on ticking as before And in …

14 Jun 2014

The 8 English Parts of Speech

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The 8 English Parts of Speech</h2>
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Today we will talk about parts of speech in English learning. These are the words that you use to make a sentence.</div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 20px;">So there are thousands of words in any language. But not all of the words  are having same work to do in language. For example, some words are used to grasp "action". other words may explain a "thing." Some other words, "connect" a word to others. Indeed all words acts like a "building blocks" of the language. What you think parts of a house are build of? </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: 20px;">If you are going to build your own house, you will use concrete to make the foundations. You will use bricks to make the walls and boundaries. You will use window frames to make the windows, and door frames to make the doors. And we use cement to join all of them together. Each part of the house has its own duty or you can say function. Similarly, when you want to build a sentence, you will use the different types of words. Each type of word has its own function.</span></span></div>
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There are only <strong>8 types of word</strong> - and the most important is the Verb!</div>
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<li><strong>Verbs</strong> <i>be, have, do, work</i></li>
<li><strong>Nouns</strong> <i>man, town, music</i></li>
<li><strong>Adjectives</strong> <i>a, the, 69, big</i></li>
<li><strong>Adverbs</strong> <i>loudly, well, often</i></li>
<li><strong>Pronouns</strong> <i>you, ours, some</i></li>
<li><strong>Prepositions</strong> <i>at, in, on, from</i></li>
<li><strong>Conjunctions</strong> <i>and, but, though</i></li>
<li><strong>Interjections</strong> <i>ah, dear, er, um</i></li>
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The 8 English Parts of Speech

The 8 English Parts of Speech Today we will talk about parts of speech in English learning. These are the words that you use to make a sentence. So there are thousands of words in any language. But n…

14 Jun 2014

Intro to Creative Writing: Exercises for Story Writers Basic Theory:

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<b><span style="font-family: Arial;"><span> Intro to Creative Writing: Exercises for Story Writers</span></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: Arial;">Basic Theory:</span></b><br />
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   <span style="font-family: Arial;"><b> </b>What is a short story? As soon as someone delivers a definition, some good writer will write a story that proves the theory wrong. About the only thing we can say for sure is that short stories are <i>short</i> and that they are written in what we call <i>prose</i>. Some attributes, however, seem to show up more often than not.</span><br />
   <span style="font-family: Arial;"> Short stories</span><br />
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<li><span style="font-family: Arial;">have a <i>narrator</i>; that is, someone <i>tells</i> the story;</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Arial;">have at least one <i>character</i> in them;</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Arial;">have some <i>action</i> occur (or perhaps fails to occur);</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Arial;">take place somewhere; that is, there is a <i>setting</i> for the action;</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Arial;">and someone either learns something or fails to learn something (<i>theme</i>).</span></li>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;">With these five characteristics in mind, we can create an almost endless supply of exercises to help sharpen our techniques of story telling.</span><br />
<b>Narrative Voice</b><br />
   <span style="font-family: Arial;"> Twenty or so years ago, voice was the "rite of passage" into a successful writing career. Young writers were told that they should write until they developed their <i>voice</i>. The way to do this was to simply write (and read) as much as possible, having others read your work and comment on it, until your voice became distinct from others. The evidence to support this theory was generally drawn from the body of work of successful writers. Everyone agreed that you could read a Hemingway story, for instance, without factual evidence that the story was written by Hemingway, and recognize it as his work because of his distinctive voice. Faulkner provided an even clearer example of this philosophy. In more recent years, the notion that one must discover a unique voice has become a secondary issue as any number of successful writers have demonstrated that they can write in more than one narrative voice.</span><br />
   <span style="font-family: Arial;"> Nevertheless, a narrative voice that sounds like it could be anyone's voice or is bland and boring, or riddled with pointless clichés will fail to capture and hold the reader's attention. And a voice that is inconsistent will tend to confuse the reader about the narrator's attitude towards his/her characters and the story that is being told.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial;">NOTE: It is quite common for writers in the early stages of their careers to imitate the writers they are reading or admire most. Often we are not even aware that we are doing this when we write.</span><br />
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<li><span style="font-family: Arial;">Locate a relatively long descriptive passage in a short story or novel that you enjoy, and write a blatant imitation. Follow the sentence structure and syntax word for word. Do this exercise for as many different writers as you can. You should write at least 250 words each time you do this exercise.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Arial;">Use a text like <i>Best American Short Stories</i>, containing about 20 stories from as many writers, and write imitations of the first page of each short story in the text.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Arial;">Write a complete short story in imitation of your favorite writer from each major historical period for the past three centuries. (Note: you can change the subject matter, sex of the main character, and other such details and still write an imitation.)</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Arial;">Locate a writer whose work you do NOT particularly care for and write a parody of the story.</span></li>
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<b>Point of View</b><br />
   <span style="font-family: Arial;"><b> </b>Language is always uttered from some point of view; that is, it comes from someone. Scientific writers and legal writers (lawyers, the court) may try to hide this fact by writing in a voice so passive that it begins to sound as if it were uttered from some completely impartial god outside of the human experience, but no one argues more passionately than those folks who write within these two areas.</span><br />
   <span style="font-family: Arial;"> When writing a short story we use one of the following points of view:</span><br />
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<li><span style="font-family: Arial;">Third Person Restricted: We recognize this from the pronouns "he" or "she." In this point of view, probably the most popular, and some would argue the most natural, all the action takes place in the presence of the character from whose point of view we learn the story. If we are taken "inside the head" of a character, it is only within this character's head. The narrator does NOT tell us what anyone else thinks or feels. This character may or may NOT be the main character of the story.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Arial;">First Person: We recognize this from the pronoun "I." Like third person restricted, all of the action takes place within this character's presence, and we learn only his/her thoughts and feelings in any kind of direct fashion.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Arial;">Omniscient: As the word implies, this is a god-like point of view. The narrator freely moves from one character's perspective to another. This point of view was far more popular in previous centuries than it has been in the current one, reflecting both the tastes of authors and the reading public. Using this point of view within a short story is very difficult to pull off with any success because of the space restrictions. It takes time to develop more than one character's point of view.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Arial;">Second Person: We recognize this from the pronoun "you." This point of view is rarely used except in some experimental writing. Literally "you" means the reader, and a story told from this point of view can quickly become tiresome. Authors often, however, slip into the highly vernacular syntactical structure of using the pronoun in a casual manner—I kind of "you know what I mean" statement—because the language used to tell stories is more often than not colloquial.</span></li>
<li><span style="font-family: Arial;">Pure Dramatization: This really isn't a "point of view" but occasionally a writer will produce a story that is very close to a play. That is, we receive almost all dialogue and very little narration, which usually seems little more than stage direction. Hemingway's "Hills Like White Elephants" is about as close to this as any successful short story trying to accomplish this technique.</span></li>
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<span style="font-family: Arial;"><b>Exercise</b>: Take any story you have written and rewrite it from a different point of view. If you originally wrote the story in first person, try it in third person restricted. You'll discover that you need to do more than simply changing the pronoun.  You should find that it is easier to be more objective about a character you are rendering in third person.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial;">If you've written a story in third person, try it in first. This can be an especially fruitful exercise if you've had trouble making the character sympathetic.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Arial;">A wonderful example of the use of point of view in a novel is F. Scott Fitzgerald's <i>The Great Gatsby</i>. Most casual readers remember this novel as a third person novel, but it is actually told from the first person point of view. We learn everything from Nick's perspective, Gatsby's neighbor.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Arial;">As a variation on the exercise, you can take someone else's published story and render passages, especially paragraphs of narrative of at least a half page in length in a point of view other than that which the author used. Once again, watch what happens to the language as you change the point of view. What is it you need to add, take away? How does this change affect the emotional relationship the reader develops with the character.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial;"><b>The T.S. Eliot/John Gardner Killer Exercise</b></span><b style="font-family: Arial;">:</b><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial;">This exercise is quite possibly the most difficult, demanding and important exercise a writer can ever do. The poet and critic, T. S. Eliot, coined the phrase "objective correlative" to designate what he believed was the most important element in writing: Rendering the description of an object so that the emotional state of the character from whose point of view we receive the description is revealed WITHOUT ever telling the reader what that emotional state is or what has motivated it.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial;">The late John Gardner, recognized in his lifetime as the leading creative writing teacher in the United States, developed the following exercise for students:</span><br />
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   <span style="font-family: Arial;"> A middle-age man is waiting at a bus stop. He has just learned that his son has died violently. Describe the setting from the man's point of view WITHOUT telling your reader what has happened. How will the street look to this man? What are the sounds? Odors? Colors? That this man will notice? What will his clothes feel like? Write a 250 word description.</span></div>

Intro to Creative Writing: Exercises for Story Writers Basic Theory:

Intro to Creative Writing: Exercises for Story Writers Basic Theory: What is a short story? As soon as someone delivers a definition, some good writer will write a story that proves the theory w…

15 May 2014

Phonetics The Study Of Speech Sounds

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<span style="color: red; font-size: x-large;"><span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="6c8c4b26-9b2f-4eec-ae09-9e1136965d9c" id="f614ac85-86f4-40d3-8fa6-ffffee5aff55">Phonetics</span> The Study Of Speech Sounds</span></div>
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Phonetics has been defined as the science of speech sounds. It is a branch of linguistics and deals with the sounds produced by human beings in their speech <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="1735e3dc-7efe-4930-a0ab-1fdbfbbb304b" id="95bc0e61-cadb-4c5d-bb62-582f9f9d3390">behaviour</span>. In speaking trial listening a complex of activities is involved<span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="046675a1-f6e3-48ab-9ad4-8f293fffbcc4" id="b93a6389-1b26-4f7f-a6ab-8d70e5141e9a"> :</span> there is the production of speech which is the result of simultaneous activities of several body organs.<br />
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These activities are aimed at creating disturbances in the air. The inhaled air acts as <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="d68e253e-9185-44c6-8ed7-7d77c5cab72a" id="24631ddb-193c-43bd-9f97-e5462f3acb1b">source</span> of energy setting the outside air vibrating so that <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="d68e253e-9185-44c6-8ed7-7d77c5cab72a" id="df8ca1e9-7eae-4848-84b6-fc0fefe38b89">the sound thus</span> generated is carried along <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="d68e253e-9185-44c6-8ed7-7d77c5cab72a" id="b805cb8d-3fb9-49c3-afa8-759a2714de48">to</span> the ears of the listener. The auditory process is set in motion which is again a complicated process involving auditory organs; perception of speech segments which involves discarding the non-significant features from the significant or distinctive features and perceiving only those that are meaningful. ‘Even a single speech sound combines a large number of distinctive features which provide the information on which an auditor bases recognition of the sound’ (Tiffany-Carrell). It is like retrieving a small visual image from a crowd of intricate details. But the brain can quickly decode the incoming signals that have been encoded by the speakers. ‘Physical energy in the form of sensory nerve impulses reaches the brain’, the brain circuitry is understood to <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="82b3c2d6-d92f-477f-bab1-d16b5c6db85b" id="098fd05d-4a0d-4b7a-a2ab-49ee8048d3c8">organise</span> them into <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="82b3c2d6-d92f-477f-bab1-d16b5c6db85b" id="415fe120-8ec4-48fc-bc2e-324e6b4c38b7">percepts</span> which are the basis of recognition. Obviously, a complex of multiple factors in the form of the listeners’ interest, his social background, intellectual level, <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="b8763b5d-ad16-4d57-9398-de22f5523517" id="751655cc-34dd-46e3-9367-20dc72b67832">pas</span>! <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="ebfafe68-cec0-4d4b-af76-92165661e64b" id="a5844b7f-497e-4fab-9184-78a2b42e6331">experience</span> and other parameters play an active and significant role in the perception level, and the interpretation is made accordingly.<br />
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We thus observe that speech act encompasses intricate movements and activities that occur on different planes, some of them simultaneously and at incredible speed. We <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="4dc6c325-dd03-4b61-8b06-216923f78513" id="bbf98af9-4299-4dea-bef8-8a70b37da115">ate</span> so used to speaking in a <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="4dc6c325-dd03-4b61-8b06-216923f78513" id="6f776213-5186-4293-9253-ecb7f9522e6b">natural effortless</span> manner, that we hardly give attention to the complex nature of speech production and speech perception.<br />
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Branches of Linguistics<br />
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Phonetics    has three major branches:<br />
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1)   Articulatory Phonetics<br />
2)   Auditory Phonetics<br />
3)   Acoustic Phonetics<br />
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Articulatory phonetics is also known as physiological phonetics; and auditory phonetics <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="97863b9b-81df-4329-937c-c708db5b7edc" id="ec41b794-e820-41ae-9658-b170d6c10985">is known</span> by the name perceptual phonetics.<br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">Articulatory Phonetics</span><br />
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This branch of phonetics <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="41e9e716-1b30-4b1c-afb6-fd9eda5a1dcb" id="47ff7e75-dfce-410b-b8e0-65f7ae0a527f">recognises</span> that there is speech producing mechanism in human beings. ‘The ‘apparatus’ that produces speech sounds is situated within the human body. However, it must be clear that there is no separate ‘apparatus’ exclusively used for generating speech sounds. Speech is, <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="eea7e5fd-22a2-44dc-afda-04535d0561d0" id="3234645c-1043-4c2a-829d-fb28f9bf9df4">infact</span>, an <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="eea7e5fd-22a2-44dc-afda-04535d0561d0" id="60a3e19e-39dd-4548-ac89-49e2487d990c">overlaid</span> function in that human beings utilize in a special way organs which are part of the respiratory and digestive system. Man uses those organs for <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="6d869fa8-4d59-4127-8ccb-ff376734e324" id="88242575-0b2d-4de9-a3c3-a2bf15173d4d">speaking which</span> already serve other biological needs. Thus lips, teeth, tongue, hard palate, soft palate, trachea, lungs - all these organs used in speech production have different basic biological functions. In the process of cultural evolution, man devised ways of utilizing these organs and parts thereof (such as the tip, blade, front, <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="9c296fe0-f8e1-4d83-ab90-8c84362bac17" id="059b9be4-859d-436e-95e0-1c951163db67">centre</span>, back of the tongue <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="9c296fe0-f8e1-4d83-ab90-8c84362bac17" id="ceb6b6ae-4fba-403f-a244-3c21d80ab97f">alongwith</span> the corresponding areas or points in the roof of <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="9c296fe0-f8e1-4d83-ab90-8c84362bac17" id="42945a25-1235-4b87-bde0-24b25443d194">mouth</span> or hard palate) for verbal communication.<br />
Besides<span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="17031b38-1411-462f-a852-c7986fa82006" id="3f6f861e-4ee4-4247-9db6-b1453e80f2b1">( </span>these the airstream that goes in and out of the lungs forms the basis of speech; that is, speech is based en the outgoing airstream. Articulatory phonetics <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="a4f6927f-a9e0-4ae1-9eae-a83fe399ffcd" id="9824c9c1-4509-4ce5-86f5-e1dfb60f6aa7">studies</span> how the outgoing airstream is regulated along the vocal tract to form various speech sounds.<br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">Auditory Phonetics</span><br />
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This branch of phonetics studies how speech sounds are heard and perceived. This <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="3bf1f57d-08ca-4634-b0a6-12667fd16c1c" id="e274cb07-9d01-4fac-b4da-6fa9039db4d0">galls</span> for a close study of the psychology of perception on the one hand, and the mechanism of the <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="3bf1f57d-08ca-4634-b0a6-12667fd16c1c" id="cc845588-18a8-4294-abe0-4eb0549847c9">neuro</span>-muscular circuitry on the other.<br />
<br />
Hearing is a very intricate process; it implies ‘interpreting the physical description of actual or proposed signals in terms of the auditory sensations which the signals would create if impressed upon the ear’ (French). Acoustic signals generate a ‘complex chain of physical disturbances within the auditory system’. The brain receives <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="1328af2b-b2c4-4229-9a45-0eebcf17bf21" id="f9383ab5-37d8-44e7-969a-1b22815b28e8">signal</span> about these physical disturbances; in the brain <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="1328af2b-b2c4-4229-9a45-0eebcf17bf21" id="add9543a-bdd7-4b55-b121-f77e9124c854">are caused</span> other disturbances - physical counterparts of the sensations. It is necessary to establish correlation between the auditory signals and their interpretation in terms of the disturbances in the brain. It is a challenging task, one can say that not much headway has been made in unravelling the complex pattern of the course charted by the speech signals through the auditory system into the <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="9917d5f9-92c9-48a9-9170-219aeaa1dbb6" id="e83997dd-84e0-4b15-9e00-cbeb5fe572cf">neuro</span>-muscular processes. However, we can divide the whole process into three stages:<br />
<br />
i)    <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="d1547f66-e2a1-4c6b-9d59-b8265b92f3b0" id="dbc99ad4-b2fb-4ab1-ab7f-6af63594fdc7">the</span> physical aspect of die auditory system<br />
ii)   <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="bf3e01b2-f812-4324-8825-607240370a3d" id="8a5bc208-a2a0-428b-8513-539117ba0b51">recognition</span> of the essential characteristics of hearing.<br />
iii)  <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="fed9ef14-148b-4970-a106-6d0aed55532d" id="bae7d2ff-eaf7-4ac6-8201-a833f915ce3d">interpreting</span> auditory sensations, their attributes and their relation to the signals.<br />
<br />
The physical aspect of die auditory system involves a detailed description of the external, middle and inner ear (also known as Cochlea), and the auditory receptive <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="92564fdd-9893-4bf1-a7e1-7eeb461c1a86" id="12b6d4dd-677d-4f27-a2ec-49a1f5db97db">centres</span> of tic bran, the neural network. This also takes into account ‘translating acoustic signals into auditory sensations’ which begins with the transfer of pressure variation of sound waves to the fluids in the inner ear. The inner ear analyses these vibrations and encodes them into ‘neural pulses of <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="275aa877-dd91-4369-8557-842da04e1d4f" id="37650f6a-debe-421a-9b39-a746c5a252d3">elctrochemical</span> activity’. The inner ear is connected to the auditory receptive <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="ed051484-49e3-435e-b34a-d8860aa4ab30" id="10292f25-0ea9-47c3-aeb4-e52c4a8d4ed7">centres</span> by the auditory nerve which carries these pulses. The auditory <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="455c3f68-0f90-4f49-ac04-fc3b2c693bcf" id="4838a4be-6961-4f24-800b-ee2873e73b4a">centres</span> are correspondingly stimulated. But there is a difference between the liaises and the actual sensations in the neural <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="23c2a0af-2c73-4cd1-933e-f8dc0ac98d98" id="56d8fbe3-54a1-4d15-8654-261f924413f4">centres</span> that <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="23c2a0af-2c73-4cd1-933e-f8dc0ac98d98" id="07c790ef-884c-4c3a-adb2-f5d0f19e66b6">ate</span> thus generated.<br />
<br />
The basic characteristics of healing include such features as loudness, absolute sensitivity, frequency tones, ‘masking’ or the elimination of the subjective traces of one of the two or more sounds; that the ear is exposed to, pitch etc. Interpreting, the auditory sensations into their physical signals poses serious problems. The auditory sensations do lint offer a <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="70f64727-36ef-435a-865f-94ef18952f97" id="34be785b-9052-4787-b395-82b1a6daa2a3">featly</span>, palpable pattern that can satisfactorily be described Sound signals may be composed of a variety of components - horn bits of ‘transients’ to sounds of longer duration; from single unit tones to multiple segment complexes; Bonn ones having a constant pattern to continually changing frequencies. It is not necessary that the auditory sensation would reflect the identical occurrences of these sound signals. In the complex sound patterns, their ‘separate components may retain the identity in the resulting sensation’ or may produce an entirely new sensation. Signals of varying frequencies may produce a <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="0330c8d8-4a12-41b3-9026-99d0bc2385fc" id="0eb8b6be-4dd0-4371-aed3-c3446a7afaa9">study</span> pattern of sensations or separate sensations. Composition of the human brain plays a crucial role in this regard. It poses difficulties in the way of interpretation. Many signals are highly complex and can only be described in mathematical terms. However, such descriptions do not have any relevance to phonetics and must, therefore, be ignored.<br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">Acoustic Phonetics</span><br />
<br />
Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds such as frequency and amplitude in their transmission. Acoustic phoneticians <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="7e795f2a-125c-4931-b69d-ae1f46bd9cda" id="2690e35b-0692-40b3-8771-6113df2182bf">analyse</span> the speech waves with the help of instruments, attempt to describe the physical properties of the stream of sound issues forth from the mouth of a speaker.<br />
It is in the field of acoustic phonetics that the most sulking developments have taken place since the Second World War. <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="0a46a950-d880-48ba-ba38-80e044a46890" id="7e834769-b2b3-47de-b35f-18c3aa9e2a5a">Complex sound</span> waves produced in speech can be <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="0a46a950-d880-48ba-ba38-80e044a46890" id="e99ac9a4-7998-470c-9255-c13c70c2a74b">analysed</span> into their component frequencies and relative amplitudes. Considerable progress has also been made in speech-synthesis. Acoustic analysis has confirmed (if confirmation was needed) that speech is not made up of a sequence of discrete sounds. The articulatory features of rounding of voice, of nasality, of <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="2e3e2d28-27e9-4c35-967d-eebebdfa9a8b" id="9b474932-3b3a-4b52-99f1-6f165ba1ffc6">obstruction</span> and of friction can also be identified acoustically. Acoustic phonetics achieved a good deal of success in matters of the study of <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="5409c258-2d19-41b6-bcd0-c2590e919e59" id="58be0a62-00c0-4abe-b800-768627ac40b2">the n</span> vowels, but regarding consonants it has not reached final conclusions.<br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">Articulators</span><br />
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We shall now consider the organs which are used in articulation. All speech organs are known as articulators. They are broadly divided into two categories<span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="2802218c-cca8-42d0-83f6-76f4610a60ed" id="b8d37934-9d57-4ea8-9b6b-76e620e49601"> :</span><br />
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a)   Mobile or active articulators<br />
b)   Fixed or passive articulators<br />
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We have already noted that there is perceptibly significant mobility in the laryngeal and pharyngeal regions. In fact, the whole of sub-laryngeal area is active in speech production. However, there are more noticeable movements in the larynx and areas immediately above it. The throat forms a crucial factor in determining resonance. The length of the pharyngeal resonator can be changed by muscular actions which raise and lower the larynx. Among the mobile or active articulators the centrally important one is the tongue. It is extremely flexible and mobile. The other two mobile articulators are the lower jaw (mandible) which can move both vertically and horizontally to change the phonetic qualities of sounds, and the lips; they can be rounded or spread, brought closer to the upper teeth or simply held neutrally.<br />
<br />
The fixed or passive articulators <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="9f6f9168-8548-49c7-b509-540c3429bf3b" id="59ae59d1-1a2c-435a-b9e6-8f05736cbb3e">are include</span> the roof of the mouth. This is dome-shaped, hard and bony. It is known as the hard palate. The hard palate and the teeth play a necessary, although <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="25190b8b-512a-46f4-b1ea-183e4cf4bc74" id="5bfc409c-b369-42de-bed1-b3203cec4d7b">passive role</span> in articulation. The bony palate forms the anterior part of the roof of mouth, separating the oral cavity from the nasal passage. The hard palate terminates in the soft <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="04beea6f-daed-4b41-b9c6-80bd7e43b414" id="9e03bf07-fccc-481e-a717-b76af9c4b36f">palate which</span> is muscular. This is also called <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="4965cb1b-7bf6-4492-840f-45c9f7c8f90e" id="1e257b18-b3d4-400f-9d68-92f1fc79a6e6">velum</span> or velum palatinum which forms the posterior section of the roof  of the mouth, separating the mouth cavity from <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="4965cb1b-7bf6-4492-840f-45c9f7c8f90e" id="f1f0d2c1-75ad-4d42-834d-4d6abbcf2e43">nasopharynx</span>. The velum can be lowered or raised for opening or closing the <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="9b98150a-e77b-4f7e-9765-928d03656700" id="298d81ff-086a-49e5-8893-d986c545644d">nasopharyngeal</span> passage. We shall see this in detail in the section dealing with nasal sounds.<br />
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The upper teeth also participate in articulatory process, with the active articulators coming into contact with them to form various <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="d33b5075-ec59-47e5-b73e-24cc294c2955" id="2cd6fb61-a09f-4062-918d-f723f7643301">constrictions</span>, thus modifying the airstream and producing different speech sounds.<br />
We shall now separately consider in detail each one of these articulators. <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="e0998412-bdd0-4d56-8c2d-32ea38c5a896" id="1bfed856-1066-487b-96f1-25f2f5772747">First let</span> us look at the active articulators.<br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">Active Articulators</span><br />
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The main role of the active articulators is to actively interfere with the outgoing airstream and modify it to produce various types of speech sounds. This is done either by approximating (forming a constriction) or coming into full contact with the passive articulators (forming complete stoppage). We have seen the functioning of the larynx, glottis and vocal cords in earlier sections. Now we shall take a look at the <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="a26a9bfd-af73-487a-b2ab-cce20cefec21" id="1783cd4d-b6a9-416a-864d-fdadd199a64b">oropharyngeal</span> articulators that are situated in the mouth.<br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">Tongue</span><br />
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The most active of articulators is the tongue. It shows an amazing range of adjustments and movements mainly because it is made of two groups of muscles, intrinsic ones are <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="e572841c-5e96-4a9e-86aa-8376384224d9" id="721d045c-339f-4bb6-ab71-76b559e0bfb9">fibres</span> of the longitudinal, transverse and <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="e572841c-5e96-4a9e-86aa-8376384224d9" id="929c4598-7f6b-424c-a5ea-aad08639eaa3">verticalis</span> lingual <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="e572841c-5e96-4a9e-86aa-8376384224d9" id="1bf074b0-3d4a-4c32-b4f7-9b78f209a562">musceles</span>. These muscles are within the tongue and mainly responsible for changes in its shape. They blend with the extrinsic muscles which originate outside of the tongue. Their function determines the position and movement of the tongue. ‘The tongue is an organ of taste, and used for chewing and swallowing activities... On the basis of its <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="bc7517c6-7116-4255-923e-28fc13a0d7c5" id="a0580530-fcbf-4eea-b6b8-a914780b4f88">great</span> flexibility and motility, the secondary function of articulation has been super-imposed’. (G.E. Arnold)<br />
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It has been divided into the following major parts on the surface along its length.<br />
<br />
i)    <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="c0dfda76-62c0-4e0e-bfca-c0a224e742cf" id="4522a087-c9ba-4186-90d3-d1628a57b72e">apex</span> or tip<br />
ii)   <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="e3eaa156-30f9-4d74-b7d4-a1dac25588d6" id="f30d190a-4d43-420c-b6f3-863a6ee47ff4">blade</span><br />
iii)  <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="0991a027-7abf-47fd-a1da-266ef6337e49" id="d388445c-ff00-4d7f-aa42-a3ffb1e7baa0">front</span><br />
iv)  <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="8511cdde-56a8-4952-b78b-4f1686c0f2b2" id="0637b8ec-983a-4c99-bf1a-c5605097f3ba">back</span> or <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="8511cdde-56a8-4952-b78b-4f1686c0f2b2" id="9ef87baa-4b33-4caf-ae25-098630dbe5e3">dorsum</span><br />
v)   <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="7f113abb-0fe1-48bb-ad71-f1e6188e0ed3" id="a3621d80-9730-4c4a-aaad-2a62f442aaf4">root</span><br />
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The sides of the tongue can also be used in speech, these are known as margin. For lateral sounds the sides are raised enough for the airstream to create turbulence and escape continuously. The tip can be raised and curled <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="191cef84-fb98-47e1-a5ee-844f4da8617b" id="868abb69-ab59-4ce2-ae2a-8ffdf2486c84">backwards letting</span> the passing airstream to vibrate it. This produces <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="bc7c5e4a-f52b-4021-bfb5-4b1768929b6c" id="407dd3af-78b3-4786-9ee2-9b2e1f8f3ac4">retroflex</span> sounds of various types.<br />
Lower lip: The lower lip is a mobile articulator which can be used for many oral configurations. With the upper lip it can form various degrees of rounding that produce different vowels. It can bring about complete oral occlusion with the upper lip which produces bilabial sounds, <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="e4707207-69e6-4285-8cf1-a7d481217ca8" id="d925bcfd-c50c-43d9-8250-c2630a23a74b">plosives</span> and in many languages fricatives also. When the lower lip comes into contact with upper teeth, we hear fricative sounds (labio-dental).<br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">Passive Articulators</span><br />
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Passive or immobile articulators cannot be moved about, but perform a v cry crucial role in speech production. The mobile organs approximate them, i.e. <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="74604f84-0504-4152-8763-927126ad2b69" id="3fbcfdf4-769d-4879-83a3-2fae14bfc94e">come</span> close enough to affect the shape of the outgoing column of air, or form a complete closure by coming into full contact with them.<br />
These organs are mostly located in the upper part of the mouth, beginning in front with the upper lip, upper teeth, the gum ridge or <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="1a84addf-ef90-4c65-8977-87f736c2653d" id="50aa7ab8-1248-4f91-b50a-a420b0267209">alveolum</span>, hard palate, the soft palate, just behind the hard palate and the back wall of the throat (pharynx).<br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">Upper lip<span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="a6fafd2a-d5bd-48ca-8ae6-61f706cbfa2a" id="69cadd3f-6557-4a19-9ca0-f57d43e41d0c"> :</span> </span><br />
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Though upper lip is not a rigid organ and can be moved, <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="2cecf0a9-6f40-4e75-b29d-0349be25acee" id="f0be5eb0-d4bf-4d85-ae8b-fa4990983c44">in</span> speech production it is not used as a mobile articulator; rather the lower lip reaches up to create various <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="2cecf0a9-6f40-4e75-b29d-0349be25acee" id="c9cab679-75be-4854-946e-ee4d3e811868">constrictions</span> with it. Therefore, it has been classified as a passive articulator.<br />
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Upper teeth: The row of upper teeth functions as the passive articulator. Tongue-tip and blade as well as the lower lip form constriction with them. The active organs can do so either with the edges of the teeth or the back of them. Dental class of sounds is produced in this manner. <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="47b4cc83-c5a9-4d6e-bf41-af9b8d9bd91f" id="657a0ee7-44ea-41a9-893c-254a4947533e">Upper teeth</span> are also involved in the production of the fricative sounds, called labio-dentals in which the lower lip approximates them to form a slit through which the air escapes creating friction noise.<br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">Gum <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="ce99119d-3eae-4459-a2ee-d93754e0a002" id="e987f8a6-9c40-42bd-8108-5ec2149ee0b5">ridge</span>:</span><br />
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 Just behind the upper teeth is located alveolar or gum ridge. The mobile speech organs - various parts of the tongue reach it to form either a narrow stricture or a complete closure. Hindi /d/ and /t/ and their aspirated counterparts are dental stops. But English /0/ in thin and /ð/ in this are fricatives.<br />
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Hard Palate: Behind the <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="4863b9d1-a1ec-4e48-9069-27a8388ee90c" id="376f067a-32dd-49f0-85be-fcb7ea1438c3">alveolum</span> or <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="4863b9d1-a1ec-4e48-9069-27a8388ee90c" id="6c51370a-8a67-4178-af31-65d99de5f519">gum ridge</span> begins the hard palate which forms the major part of the oral arch or <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="4863b9d1-a1ec-4e48-9069-27a8388ee90c" id="39e47756-ac27-4109-afc7-29668c8f6c89">roof</span> of the mouth. We already possess an idea of its formation. It is made of the horizontal plates of <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="86448679-03f9-4bfe-98ef-bcccdac77825" id="ceca5c8f-da8b-4a28-b476-410ba60a4c3c">bone which</span> terminate in the soft palate. ‘Some part of both the hard and the soft palates serves as a point of contact or near-contact for the tongue in the production of a number of speech sounds’. It can be divided into parts or areas where the tongue makes contact. Phonetic quality is changed according to the point at which the hard palate is approximated by the tongue. These sounds are <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="e8e14a4a-3214-4cc9-83d2-fc547ed4b01a" id="4b799dc3-f8ad-4550-ad57-f904b894dae4">recognised</span> as palatal. These are further classified according to which part of the tongue comes into contact with the precise palatal area. For example, we can produce palato-alveolar sounds by bringing the tip of the tongue to touch the extreme front of the hard palate or the place lying between the gum-ridge and the palate. Alveo-palatal area lies further back <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="8d45ce6f-4349-4e65-89bf-32796ff69aa0" id="b915ea58-f613-4b46-a878-0c8f3be3743a">of</span> the region just mentioned; palatal the slope of the hard palate and <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="8d45ce6f-4349-4e65-89bf-32796ff69aa0" id="6b7eabdf-817c-4874-a970-cef34266fe11">domal</span> is the dome of it. Classification is largely a matter of convenience and practical need of the particular language. Not all the languages or dialects make use of all the classification criteria. What is suggested here is that precise classifications are possible.<br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">Soft Palate: </span><br />
<br />
This is <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="486640a0-be1f-4b73-82ed-116f4742ce58" id="1b0a00b8-53ac-46ed-aadc-8a086cc6ed66">recognised</span> as the fixed articulator though it <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="486640a0-be1f-4b73-82ed-116f4742ce58" id="6dbe1597-8cf8-4447-951b-f33092d99599">can he moved</span>, being a soft and flexible organ. The principal action of soft place consists of opening the <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="ed7181ff-4158-4649-95f4-e0d804770b16" id="07b4bc4d-a0fb-4a7e-afb9-bf4e41a50c29">naso</span>-pharyngeal cavity by lowering itself. When it is lowered, the oral passage is closed off and the outgoing airstream passes through the nose, sounds produced in this manner are identified as nasals. /<span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="85f17c4f-a532-4a78-b475-abab30da80eb" id="6bd1c892-e123-4181-b780-225fdb06685b">m</span>/, /n/, /h/ and the <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="85f17c4f-a532-4a78-b475-abab30da80eb" id="1f48f656-84bc-47a9-ad10-cd735d7445d3">nasalised</span> vowels are of this type. For opening the oral passage and allowing the air a free passage through it, the soft palate is raised. Soft <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="2b1ae19a-0f04-4d16-b0d6-3313fb873df3" id="7865c089-5fda-4e50-89c6-c11b11ad15d3">palate thus</span> acts as a valve. The back of the tongue or <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="6efc739a-be8f-4efe-9d02-b187ee534232" id="7a3449cd-529a-41d0-93c4-8a331b4a04ed">derssum</span> makes contact with the velum to produce either frictional sounds or stops. These stops are known as velar stops /k/, /g/. <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="eff56c1c-c1f3-41f1-97b2-2d44902584b4" id="c531880f-bc4f-47e8-a8c0-8359cb698a75">Retroflex</span> sounds can also be produced by bringing the underside of the tongue tip to touch the velum.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Uvula</span><br />
<br />
The soft palate terminates into a piece of flesh which dangles over the pharyngeal passage. This is called <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="1380a297-9b47-4982-8c75-5505f5f06a25" id="f5834943-ccaf-450a-90cd-b36f21fc85b6">uvula</span>. It is a ‘<span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="fafdbca2-97e7-4dab-bd23-4ff812320817" id="4a50ef24-03d0-4377-a53a-8c4506b00fdb">small flexible</span> appendage hanging down from the posterior edge of the <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="fafdbca2-97e7-4dab-bd23-4ff812320817" id="542692c8-042f-4bba-acf4-d887e539339b">velum</span>, (Gleason). It can be vibrated by the outgoing breath-stream, to produce uvular sound, particularly uvular trills. Some languages use these sounds as phonemes.<br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">Pharynx: </span><br />
<br />
The posterior wall of the pharynx is used for producing speech. In the front are the base of the tongue, the palate, and the two openings leading to the nasal and oral passages. This area can be divided into three parts<span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="c39fc884-cd2d-473e-b3f5-4ff9e071809a" id="a0223d49-212a-45b1-a68f-5b44cb88c8b9"> :</span> the <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="c39fc884-cd2d-473e-b3f5-4ff9e071809a" id="5f68451d-4d9a-4369-903d-a9a867c3145f">hypopharynx</span> behind the tongue; the <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="c39fc884-cd2d-473e-b3f5-4ff9e071809a" id="03403f93-5f2e-4da5-a466-5df3196685a3">mesopharynx</span>, behind the velum, and <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="c39fc884-cd2d-473e-b3f5-4ff9e071809a" id="8699dec7-17f5-436d-9152-f70451e4c438">nasopharynx</span> behind the nose. In the <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="b21e0ec6-bbdc-456b-accd-d0d79ab83fcd" id="f4739165-0390-4837-9835-d6bfddc7e528">mesopharynx</span> area are to be found the crossing of the alimentary and respiratory canals. The pharynx serves as a resonator for the voice. Widening of the pharynx promotes resonance and makes the <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="035b03ac-93cc-49d7-8a01-4fd5c00b107f" id="d4b078e6-a995-4d9b-89cf-28e3534c9848">tones</span> full, dark, strong and resonant; narrowing tends to make them thin, sharp, dampened, and throaty’ (Arnold). Besides, the root of the tongue can also be made to come into contact with the pharyngeal wall and produce certain types of fricatives and stops. Below are discussed certain processes of speech production. These are generally used by languages all over the world.<br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: large;"><span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="012601cc-cf4c-49ff-98ef-122306b53854" id="a6ef8d9f-fdf8-436d-abd1-c470ca8c4b69">Labiabialization</span></span><br />
<br />
This is a process in which the lips play an active part in various ways. They come together to form various stages or degrees of rounding which is a crucial factor in producing back vowels /u/, /o/, /*/, as in <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="87b0ed39-1124-4aff-8536-91d9a36a44ee" id="ff7783db-079b-41b2-8739-99c6312e3856">shoe</span>, <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="87b0ed39-1124-4aff-8536-91d9a36a44ee" id="1937feea-551f-4ea9-8173-b1153775fe38">shore</span>, and<span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="87b0ed39-1124-4aff-8536-91d9a36a44ee" id="4a73f4d5-9417-49d7-9bdf-cfb77378ac62"> .</span>a. The two lips are joined together for the pronunciation of the <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="666e37bb-8cfe-4fd4-8d46-c0c938b6f381" id="429a61f5-0331-4e03-a6e7-5fa853b10c8c">plosive</span> sounds /p/, /b/; and the voiced nasal <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="666e37bb-8cfe-4fd4-8d46-c0c938b6f381" id="bb27ada9-88e2-4b50-84ed-2b50c91c6fba">continuant</span> /m/. The lower lip is raised approximate the edge of the upper teeth for the fricatives /f/, /v/. For the semi-vowel /w/ <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="30e176ab-7a98-49bc-ab53-362eafd731c3" id="dfb27074-f11d-4a34-9838-6d4d3622993c">again there</span> is a noticeable lip-rounding. Bilabial fricatives are not uncommon. In the African language Tshiluba this is used. Even a bilabial trill is heard in some languages.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="2ca0d322-a613-436c-882d-ff1929b6e050" id="b17fa42c-6ad2-4eca-b4ab-290755fa427b">Polatalization</span>:</span><br />
<br />
 In palatalization the tongue approximates the hard palate leaving only a narrow space through which the airstream passes producing friction noise; or the tongue may form complete occlusion and then gradually withdraw, creating a turbulence of air due to the breath-stream escaping through the space slowly being allowed to form. This is how the sound in jar /dзa<span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="8fb09a05-2596-4064-8a2e-e15453667c75" id="b09d9cb9-b021-4123-963c-56940789f62d">:</span>/ and chair /tòe∂/ is pronounced.<br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: large;"><span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="789f3be6-10e5-4ff4-8a0e-98bf38a20787" id="0b9e32d4-ee34-4b13-bc28-a9039332d908">Velarization</span>: </span><br />
<br />
Velar sounds are produced by this process. The back of the tongue either approximates or forms <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="69f8aa7a-ff0e-49fd-81d5-3733738a2276" id="d2338acc-447e-41d5-8a0c-b2775a208bbf">total occlusion</span> for articulating certain types of stop and fricative sounds. The velar sounds are /k/ and /g/ in English. /<span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="be866306-165b-4e7d-b1c4-3cf83cf5ca11" id="497d615b-b34a-4916-b3aa-df96f915f135">h</span>/ is a velar nasal heard in such words <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="be866306-165b-4e7d-b1c4-3cf83cf5ca11" id="e46013d8-9a08-4d37-a7f0-f702b635c60a">as king</span>, <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="be866306-165b-4e7d-b1c4-3cf83cf5ca11" id="988dce0a-1658-413f-b41c-3cdfd5d84758">sing</span>, inquest and conquer.<br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: large;"><span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="4fa3e8cb-924c-4a5d-9d99-a1e431888a18" id="f2a8a7c5-efe4-4608-aafb-1d2ae25e8c98">Glottalization</span>: </span><br />
<br />
The space between the vocal cords is called <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="f64ffbe5-ce92-4fdd-9105-b77c1d201c98" id="029de8ac-262b-46f5-8c6f-41a82a82a0fa">glottis</span>. If the vocal cords are brought together taut and released with a ‘popping’ action, the resultant sound will be heard as a ‘glottal stop’, <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="af63f378-4177-4fa3-a1bf-3444d3d0685e" id="2ff7507f-c86e-4771-875f-efad0ffd2ea3">symbolised</span> as /<span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="af63f378-4177-4fa3-a1bf-3444d3d0685e" id="37585d69-acce-49f4-a09d-fe1f5547febe">?</span>/. We<br />
<span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="6605282e-56fd-440b-948f-185a2d3b071d" id="18a3007d-5790-42b7-80af-8a2183df4313">create</span> a glottal closure when we have to lift something heavy. In this act adequate pressure of air is, built up in sub- laryngeal region to provide enough strength. Immediately after doing the work a heavy amount of breath is forcefully released, accompanied by a glottal sound. In rapid conversation often this is used in the form of ‘catch’ in the throat. The Cockney speech of London contains quite a generous share of this sound takes place of certain dropped sounds, for example, in butter pronounced <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="fd44b5da-6fe7-4bda-8bbd-296ece8588d7" id="b1b701e8-a1ca-4779-8d1d-794f6f03f1d4">bu’er</span> /b^<span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="fd44b5da-6fe7-4bda-8bbd-296ece8588d7" id="c517a542-927e-4b56-9616-a9f0ba83982e">?</span>/ or letter /<span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="fd44b5da-6fe7-4bda-8bbd-296ece8588d7" id="0d4c9303-8fa9-45ce-9b25-b62264572912">le</span><span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="fd44b5da-6fe7-4bda-8bbd-296ece8588d7" id="665a6879-cab7-4b04-bef3-0f289d34e8af">?</span>ә/. Glottal stops are phonemic in some languages. Glottal fricatives are used in <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="8dc7e9ba-b8e8-49b2-a1bd-3d963e6daadc" id="0d5da54c-9e8a-45be-98dd-37ce4efcc216">Scottish language</span> and its regional dialects. These are <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="d5f171d7-0c2c-414c-bd92-f11c93c46216" id="cd69e430-eed6-419e-acb8-4b1a0d5eb326">symbolised</span> as [h] and [h]. In English /h/ as used in house, he, her, horse is a glottal fricative. The Scottish word loch ‘lake’ contains the glottal fricative.<br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="a1d364ee-3862-4be8-b6ef-105ee6d69918" id="1c3bd352-dc3c-41d7-b66f-24a8fcf4c32c">Nasalisation</span><span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="a1d364ee-3862-4be8-b6ef-105ee6d69918" id="2fe90886-1f4b-4b24-91a8-9ae6d5154f43"> :</span> </span><br />
<br />
This is a process whereby we produce nasal sounds or <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="a4aa665f-297d-48ee-a9bf-8585262db83a" id="a93e7d37-20b2-4f45-a54d-9d93c3be2b73">nasalised</span> vowels. In articulating these sounds, the soft palate is lowered to close off the oral passage and direct the airstream through <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="6dec3e7b-34ae-4571-86eb-292ee3f5e007" id="612258b1-08d8-4545-8d7c-4ae1298dd375">nasal cavity</span>. In another case, the air is allowed to go into both the oral and the nasal cavities, but the active articulators check it in the mouth. For /m/ two lips come together to form a closure, and <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="ec435ce5-e35d-434b-ac96-9dc7380b625b" id="8dfa2d68-a2bc-4ff1-b897-f8fa63ff641a">channelise</span> the air flow, through the nose. Similarly, for /n/ the tip of the tongue comes into contact with the back of the upper teeth and forms a closure. ‘Although the vocal tract is blocked at one point, the breath-stream flows outward through what has been called a secondary aperture consisting of the nasal airway. Acoustically, the physical conditions which impart the perceived nasal quality to these sounds are sometimes referred to as cul de sac resonance, where a relatively small cavity, the nasal resonator, is coupled to a large cavity, the oropharyngeal cavity (Tiffany-Carrell). Nasals are also classed as <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="2545cfeb-114c-4a75-a05c-6df1d286a8b3" id="2bafb915-61a1-4ae7-aa23-7570ca4460ee">resonants</span> or <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="2545cfeb-114c-4a75-a05c-6df1d286a8b3" id="e6b8f6f0-a050-4257-9091-8111e43dd70a">continuants</span>.<br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Voicing<span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="e1098c08-1691-4f9d-89f9-316da7c3bd3d" id="c8699c65-044f-4c71-9b41-d80bba599c38"> :</span> </span><br />
<br />
It is an articulatory process in which the vocal flaps are set in vibration by the outgoing column of air. During voicing, the vocal cords are brought close enough to hold them taut and the airstream vibrates them in rapid succession. There is as a result, quick opening and closing of these vocal <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="2df1e734-79a5-4dd8-8eec-33986add2a1d" id="f919beb0-7db6-45b4-931c-d7f247f8a573">cords</span> several times a second. Sounds can be produced without the vibration of the vocal cords. Such sounds are called unvoiced or voiceless sounds; sounds produced with the cords in vibration are called voiced sounds. How can one ascertain whether a sound is voiced or not? There are simple methods to do so. If we cup our ears and pronounce a voiced sound we can hear a ‘buzzing’ noise, from the time we actually get ready for it. /<span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="1e09713c-2503-4ddc-a5dc-5480cf81ac90" id="7daeeb11-765f-44d3-9e7e-3ec57aa8c378">z</span>/ in <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="1e09713c-2503-4ddc-a5dc-5480cf81ac90" id="6b444b01-dd92-48bf-bc4e-12a27ad81249">zoo</span> and /dз/ in judge or jam are voiced sounds. Another simple method is to put a finger on the front of the voice box or ‘<span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="2572c741-93fe-48ff-9f8e-4551165ffeb3" id="34e976b7-1bdb-44d2-8c83-bc480d8cfb6f">adams</span> apple’ and say these sounds - a distinct sensation of noise can be felt which is missing when we pronounce an unvoiced sound. In English we produce /g/, /b/, /d/, /dз/, /v/, /z/, /з/, /ð/, /m/, /n/, /h/, /l/, /w/, /r/ and all the vowels with voicing. These are voiced sounds. The voiceless sounds are /k/, /p/, /t/, /tò/, /f/, /s/, /ò/, /q/.<br />
<br />
<br />
<span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="87ba7af4-8754-4bd5-af54-876419ded49f" id="096f9a55-a884-4804-857f-5882fac05965">Frequency</span> of the vocal <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="87ba7af4-8754-4bd5-af54-876419ded49f" id="b632062b-0fc6-4165-a717-69b0841df674">cords</span> vibration is also related to the low and high tones, pitch level and voice amplitude, but we shall consider this in a later section. We must bear in mind at this stage that voicing or vibration of the vocal cords has a crucial function in speech production. It forms a basic factor in the fundamental classification of speech sounds into two functional categories, the voiced and the voiceless ones.<br />
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<span style="font-size: x-large;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: x-large;">Manner of Articulation</span><br />
<br />
<br />
The manner or way in which the outgoing <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="fa6382ac-90dc-429d-b057-a5546a6a8259" id="971c6a3f-988e-45b3-a9e9-3254ea55a30e">air-stream</span> is interfered with determines the manner of articulation. A sound can be described in this light. The airstream may completely be stopped and released with force producing a <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="4e4f1d13-fd87-49c2-aced-45795d87a5ed" id="80b202e3-d98d-4b42-9732-f33fb4804b9b">plosive</span> or stop sound. The occlusion may occur anywhere between <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="779b31c5-f602-4e81-b76b-cbb43241434a" id="94d00d24-73c2-4cf5-acee-9ba3a879fbf2">larynx</span> and the two lips; or the passage of air may be constricted enough for it to produce audible friction. The <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="96b9f144-73c4-469c-8032-711e0a299381" id="8e6cd472-ff53-4f07-9c68-36182c2a9087">sound thus</span> produced is called fricative. According to the manner of articulation sounds are classified into smaller classes as stops, fricatives, affricates, nasals, laterals, trills or flaps and semivowels. These constitute the larger class of consonants. For the complete description both the point/place and manner of articulation are taken into consideration.<br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">Fortis and <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="d1bd6f8e-1326-40a7-a622-6519337481c7" id="1db729e4-b330-440c-97e6-b5321232b9b0">Lenis</span></span><br />
<br />
In producing speech sounds a great deal of muscular energy is involved. Some of the sounds need greater energy than others. Voiceless sounds are the examples of sound pronounced with greater energy. The dichotomy signifies grouping of sounds according to the degree of muscular tension. ‘The former tend to be voiceless, the latter voiced, but considerable contextual modification of these qualities <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="0a09ee60-e979-409e-8191-8aec852b033c" id="074beb4c-47ce-4687-a770-e9e1fe414ac4">are</span> possible, especially as a result of accentual features’ (L.F. <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="12abc640-8038-4237-b3f7-01d9e99900fc" id="0427a66a-b5c4-443b-803a-01aed4637c05">Brasnalian</span>). English /p/, /t/, and /k/ are the examples of sounds pronounced with greater effort and breath. ‘In German <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="80260c22-6b6f-4a26-8387-6c363629dbcf" id="4db78db1-eb56-427a-a323-15cc88072189">fortis</span> articulation such as t, k, <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="80260c22-6b6f-4a26-8387-6c363629dbcf" id="77d03464-9fb2-4fa7-8527-ca326814eaf0">f are</span> distinctly voiceless, in American English, on the other hand, especially between vowels, these sounds are commonly voiced throughout their duration’.<br />
In <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="a9e9750c-8883-4329-8530-90a7c03f6d2e" id="88236bc1-b895-46e0-8e80-cbbefbb4b7f1">lenis</span>, the muscular, energy is markedly decreased and so also breath. Mostly voiced sounds are <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="49e536a2-b90c-4847-bd1c-a6e8c6b01259" id="a75745b0-59e6-4050-aa95-aabbeb5766e6">lenis</span> such as /b/, /d/, /z/, /v/, /з/, etc.<br />
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<span style="color: red; font-size: large;">Voiced and Voiceless Sounds</span><br />
<br />
We have already noted the voicing mechanism. The division of speech sounds into the voiced and the voiceless ones is of great importance in phonetics. The beginners should <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="a508aabb-c822-473f-bf47-baa4d6ac6581" id="d35b4ef4-fc8d-4037-8ca7-37afee5cdf46">familiarise</span> themselves with the vibrations felt during the production of <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="a508aabb-c822-473f-bf47-baa4d6ac6581" id="758104ec-6876-4616-a589-9d6c343bc2ba">voiced</span> sounds.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Description of Speech Sounds</span><br />
<br />
Speech Sounds are divided into two main groups: (1) consonants, and (2) vowels.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Consonants:</span><br />
<br />
A description of consonants, according to A.C. Gimson, must provide answers to the following questions:<br />
<br />
(i)           Is the <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="f0df40f6-fda6-45e4-b389-26a80c7baffa" id="92e51959-3e0d-451b-80eb-4d9d0bbddc94">air-stream</span> set in motion by the lungs or by some other means? (<span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="8025412b-f9a2-4b14-a1d9-29b532455bbd" id="8e29b864-bff2-4ffe-9259-6132f48f3719">pulmonic</span> or non-pulmonic).<br />
<br />
(ii)         Is the <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="bb240d15-edfe-4cfa-b419-97a4faf2ae7b" id="0cb8b4c4-0bda-4fc8-8bf3-1ee84f8506d5">air-stream</span> forced outwards or sucked inwards? (<span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="07cdfe68-a509-40f9-8c90-2c01292f9d43" id="c8540818-8fbe-4663-88fa-90aeb962d4d5">egressive</span> or <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="07cdfe68-a509-40f9-8c90-2c01292f9d43" id="d4fb92ef-c3cb-4c1e-acf1-6e767dadf5b4">ingressive</span>)<br />
<br />
(iii)       Do the vocal cords vibrate or not? (<span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="9d651424-bb87-4b1e-a85d-75d8982cd70d" id="aa73bef6-1fa1-4cde-8ef7-50b6faf1abb8">voiced</span> or voiceless).<br />
<br />
(iv)        Is the soft palate raised or lowered? Or, does the air pass through the oral cavity (mouth) or the nasal cavity (nose)?<br />
<br />
(v)          At what point or points and between what organs does the closure or narrowing <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="478cb294-2fda-4b70-92e9-3346e7e3e1f5" id="4100f8ed-5c2d-4852-9eff-f191e497f129">take</span> place? (Place of articulation).<br />
<br />
(vi)        What is the type of closure or narrowing at the point of articulation? (Manner of articulation).<br />
<br />
Thus the description of a consonant will include five kinds of information<span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="5461d489-3ba6-4c1f-8e85-bd9b42c25d10" id="35f3b709-fd37-43a9-a576-ddb981a47b52"> :</span><br />
<br />
(1) The nature of the airstream mechanism;<br />
(2) The state of the glottis;<br />
(3) The position of soft palate (velum);<br />
(4) The articulators involved; and (5) the nature of the ‘stricture’.<br />
<br />
<br />
The Nature of the <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="b340ec80-2ca5-4ded-8424-28d25d2d0cc3" id="8fc0cccb-3ec6-4e6f-bb0e-de3df6181605">Air-stream</span> Mechanism. Most speech sounds and all normal English sounds are made with an <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="f5873aeb-558f-4571-81d5-63088ac76c3b" id="a342f831-6ba6-4faf-98b8-878cf736d576">egressive</span> pulmonic <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="f5873aeb-558f-4571-81d5-63088ac76c3b" id="1b681307-a31c-495e-9498-4126e3bbac74">air-stream</span>, e.g., the air pushed out of the lungs.<br />
<br />
The State of Glottis. A consonant may be voiced or <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="859dd5b8-4e54-42a8-8cb0-534221a7049b" id="985000df-7447-4efb-9437-5cde4c64872e">voice-less</span>, depending upon whether the vocal cords remain wide apart (<span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="859dd5b8-4e54-42a8-8cb0-534221a7049b" id="73fc3e62-e94e-428d-ba91-d19b0e7a7e93">voice-less</span>) or in a state of vibration (voiced).<br />
<br />
The Position of the Soft Palate. While describing consonants we have to mention whether they are oral sounds (produced with <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="7010ca93-b305-4594-947b-54c665d3f2a3" id="4ccd8eac-dfc0-4298-9381-bbfa91764568">soft palate</span> raised, thus blocking the nasal passage of air) or nasal sounds (produced <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="7010ca93-b305-4594-947b-54c665d3f2a3" id="28ccfd34-67bd-4c6e-bc16-63112c33bec4">with</span> the soft palate lowered).<br />
<br />
The Articulators Involved. In the description of consonants, we have also to discuss the various articulators involved. The articulators are active (the lower lip and the tongue) and passive (the upper lip, the upper teeth, the roof of the mouth divided into the teeth-ridge, the hard palate, and the soft palate, and the back wall of the throat pharynx). In the production of a consonant the active articulator is moved towards the passive articulator. The chief points of articulation are bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, post-alveolar, palato-alveolar, retroflex, palatal, velar, uvular, and glottal. In the case of some <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="9af22bd4-2c3c-48ec-8e4e-5a3a5781890b" id="180c536c-91eb-480b-8f72-8a66812b01f5">consonantal</span> sounds, there can be a secondary place of articulation in addition to the primary. Thus, in the so-called dark /l/, in addition to the partial alveolar contact, there is an essential <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="eefcdf4e-d570-425b-bfde-941719970743" id="a69069c5-130d-4005-875a-6196a2d0c414">raising</span> <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="eefcdf4e-d570-425b-bfde-941719970743" id="eeaab5d8-a44a-40c3-aab0-f0c34f61c618">of</span> the back of the tongue towards the velum (<span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="eefcdf4e-d570-425b-bfde-941719970743" id="58029d27-8cd2-4b7f-9a4c-50718d2722ea">velarization</span>); or, again <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="eefcdf4e-d570-425b-bfde-941719970743" id="b81f00bb-6e60-498b-b25d-45744e920b0d">some</span> post-alveolar articulator of ‘<span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="eefcdf4e-d570-425b-bfde-941719970743" id="234d2ccf-e4d0-462d-9f88-4c18f16b857d">r</span>’ (r) as in red are accompanied by slight lip-rounding (<span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="eefcdf4e-d570-425b-bfde-941719970743" id="6d0d89db-65cc-43eb-a518-587c7a77b4d2">labialization</span>). We can classify consonants according to the place of articulation.<br />
The Nature of Stricture. By the nature of <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="1e3cb724-bca0-4e5c-9a69-490d82a633dd" id="12f87b88-c567-46da-b33c-ad66d56087c2">stricture we</span> mean the manner of articulation. This stricture of obstruction made by the organs may be total, intermittent, partial, or may merely constitute a narrowing sufficient to cause friction.<br />
<br />
When the <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="7a05a4e2-5e96-4856-9c9b-e58a40b88518" id="d005d112-6135-4c93-b53e-33b6be5d5c3b">stricture</span> is that of a complete closure, the active and passive articulators make a firm contact with each other, and prevent the passage of air between them. For instance, in the production of /p/ as in pin and /b/ as in bin, the lips make a total closure.<br />
<br />
The stricture may be such that air passes between the active and passive articulators intermittently. Such a <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="9b9c8ecf-847a-4325-a812-e36170545ba7" id="9129e453-02b1-4453-9bcf-8b50daf32310">stricture</span> is called intermittent closure, and involves the vibration of the active articulator against the passive. The Scottish /r/ as in rat is an example. The intermittent closure may be of such a short duration that the active articulator strikes against the passive articulator once only. The English /r/ in the word very is an example; the tip of the tongue (active articulator) makes one tap against the teeth-ridge (passive articulator).<br />
In the partial stricture, the air passes between the active and passive articulators continuously, but with some difficulty. The sounds thus produced are clear /1/ and <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="ecb2ab3d-86be-402e-898f-94b508631c2c" id="e53be9eb-cf6b-4834-bc07-472acaa5c16e">dark</span> /1/ in late, and hill, the clear and the dark ‘1’ respectively.<br />
<br />
And lastly, the stricture may be such that the air, while passing between the active and passive articulators, produces audible friction. /<span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="23206cbc-381a-47c9-90d7-8766c0af4993" id="261a4c55-e168-441a-a369-d1118e5ce219">f</span>, v, q, ð, s, z, f, з, h/ in English are examples of this kind of stricture. Or the air may pass without friction. Examples are /w/ in wet, /j/ in yes and flap /r/ as in butter. A stricture which involves audible friction, can be called a stricture of close approximation, whereas one which involves no such friction can be called a stricture of open approximation.<br />
<br />
If we are to describe some of the consonant sounds in terms of the points discussed in the preceding paragraphs, we shall do that in the following manner (we shall not make any reference to the <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="e91e352c-0dd1-4693-9323-b89ba048f3e1" id="c4ef0224-ae15-4036-adf5-12cd929aed9a">air-stream</span> mechanism since we have already mentioned that all English sounds are made with a pulmonic egressive <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="e91e352c-0dd1-4693-9323-b89ba048f3e1" id="03db7312-ddf8-4e9c-8f94-dbc3e710f3ad">air-stream</span>):<br />
<br />
1.   /<span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="d992fd8a-a4ee-4b76-ab90-cf795030e770" id="8f79ee2c-34a2-414b-a72a-9761f3e4f9cd">p</span>/ in the English word pack.<br />
(i)      The vocal cords are held apart and the sound is voiceless:<br />
(ii)     The soft palate is raised and the nasal passage is closed.<br />
(iii)    The active articulator is the lower lip.<br />
(iv)    The passive articulator is the upper lip.<br />
(v)     There is a stricture of complete closure.<br />
2.   /<span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="2ea9abf8-f2be-4acb-b9d0-ffc51962903c" id="ea3d0595-6c5f-4ae1-a7f2-ed82425d28fd">b</span>/ in the English word back.<br />
(i)      The vocal cords vibrate, and the sound produced is voiced.<br />
(ii)     The soft palate is raised and the nasal passage is closed.<br />
(iii)    The active articulator is the lower lip.<br />
(iv)    The passive articulator is the upper lip.<br />
(v)     There is a stricture of complete closure.<br />
3.   /<span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="887ef253-5c47-4d34-a450-d3a8410a261f" id="32f40b0d-b1c7-497a-8597-65a249c9b292">g</span>/ in the English word god.<br />
(i)      The vocal cords vibrate, and the sound produced is voiced.<br />
(ii)     The soft palate is raised and the nasal passive is closed.<br />
(iii)    The active articulator is the back of the tongue.<br />
(iv)    The passive articulator is the soft palate.<br />
(v)     There is a stricture of complete closure; the back of the tongue makes a complete closure with the soft palate.<br />
4.   /<span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="0a987501-4e27-476b-9838-7d0073077610" id="a57a6ca3-1b0f-4919-9688-ad1d4136f700">t</span>/ in the English <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="0a987501-4e27-476b-9838-7d0073077610" id="a915e32f-772d-4ccf-960a-e6e351c3bd9c">words</span> cat.<br />
(i)      The vocal cords are wide apart, and the sound is voiceless.<br />
(ii)     The soft palate is raised and the nasal passage is closed.<br />
(iii)    The active articulator is the tip of the tongue.<br />
(iv)    The passive articulator is the teeth ridge.<br />
(v)     There is a stricture of complete closure. The tip of the tongue makes a firm contact with the teeth ridge.<br />
5.   /<span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="837e410e-42f2-4a4b-96a1-7ab05754e172" id="19ad4bdb-4e2d-42bd-82f8-0d4b0eb6c44d">m</span>/ in the English word man.<br />
(i)      The vocal cords vibrate and the sound is voiced.<br />
(ii)     The soft palate is lowered and the air passes through the nose.<br />
(iii)    The active articulator is the lower lip.<br />
(iv)    The passive articulator is the upper lip.<br />
(v)     There is a stricture of complete oral closure.<br />
6.   /<span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="bdc3a7fb-c2ab-45a0-b7c2-101186a05e41" id="1e38338f-7e65-4f23-9226-5c1f3b48a912">v</span>/ in the English word van.<br />
(i)      The vocal cords vibrate and the sound is voiced.<br />
(ii)     The soft palate is raised and the nasal passage is closed.<br />
(iii)    The active articulator is the lower lip.<br />
(iv)    The passive articulators are the upper front teeth.<br />
(v)     The stricture is one of close approximation. (The lower lip is brought very near the upper front teeth. The air passes between them with audible friction.)<br />
7.   /<span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="37964011-6392-4473-b9d7-e7d9106dec8c" id="c6a2c6eb-b1b6-40d6-ae44-1f84e4b2d77a">j</span>/ in the English word yet.<br />
(i)      The vocal cords vibrate and the sound is voiced.<br />
(ii)     The soft palate is raised.<br />
(iii)    The active articulator is the front of the tongue.<br />
(iv)    The passive articulator is the hard palate.<br />
(v)     There is a stricture of open approximation. The front of the tongue is brought near the hard <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="edc68a98-0f42-44e2-b8d1-c34de753df3c" id="e1c26c26-4363-43be-b27e-73dd57eb6114">palate but</span> the space between them is sufficient for the air to pass without any audible friction.<br />
Hence the kind of stricture involved in the articulation of various sounds is as follows<span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="531a8ceb-c4c6-49b2-bbca-5939b85ae97b" id="b71cdb7e-b30a-4c1f-9b22-4604e7184ada"> :</span><br />
a)   <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="f3c7a09a-03c2-478e-8726-ed8c3d5cde2c" id="469eee6b-00d9-49e2-9a92-2c85ec30d74d">plosive</span><span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="f3c7a09a-03c2-478e-8726-ed8c3d5cde2c" id="7caba780-87a1-41d8-b4d4-0995243a9cc0"> :</span> complete closure,<br />
b)   <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="0737793a-6bd5-4ffd-b659-fbd5188e30e0" id="2685f731-f025-443c-ac47-0826205120e6">affricate</span><span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="0737793a-6bd5-4ffd-b659-fbd5188e30e0" id="f11c6638-211b-4400-ab88-a8e5fafe73a1"> :</span> complete closure and slow release,<br />
c)   <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="30e420c9-fece-4bdd-9951-140fdbecedc0" id="78750482-e702-4315-b2ff-cf4104982cd6">nasal</span><span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="30e420c9-fece-4bdd-9951-140fdbecedc0" id="64f03ba2-b11b-4b90-9298-b853d255bf26"> :</span> complete oral closure,<br />
d)   <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="fc3942d3-8eb3-4fd6-92e4-6fcc19be98a7" id="8340a965-b9ce-4b44-9003-f16cd6642fb0">fricate</span><span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="fc3942d3-8eb3-4fd6-92e4-6fcc19be98a7" id="a1b91afa-10d0-43a3-8aaa-b4cbd829ab33"> :</span> close approximation,<br />
e)   <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="ba375394-aaf2-4175-9f16-dfc7d87ef984" id="c5ae3471-be52-41a1-8943-f02abce5bf75">lateral</span><span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="ba375394-aaf2-4175-9f16-dfc7d87ef984" id="ba7508a4-8b3c-494a-849e-e0b3ffeb471a"> :</span> complete closure in the <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="ba375394-aaf2-4175-9f16-dfc7d87ef984" id="040719a5-afe1-4136-aab4-9a7d51172344">centre</span> of the vocal tract and the air passes along the side(s) of the tongue,<br />
f)    <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="11db1808-9b89-4fb0-8720-344f249f4887" id="b8f1f0f0-effe-488d-b9cf-309dbda90124">vowel</span><span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="11db1808-9b89-4fb0-8720-344f249f4887" id="ced08980-a615-4fad-8128-b35c7d54a346"> :</span> open approximation,<br />
g)   semi-vowel<span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="af909eb0-8990-439a-9b49-f7a8bd5e9e5b" id="2cc64130-9eb6-4a19-a6cc-e2c2e46743d9"> :</span> open approximation,<br />
h)   <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="7886fa11-feff-474b-8d45-4391e7d1097d" id="ff564089-e5d2-4884-8bc5-2ff5c5d52003">frictionless</span> <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="7886fa11-feff-474b-8d45-4391e7d1097d" id="0955afbe-e63e-4731-84c3-8a73aae91268">continuant</span><span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="7886fa11-feff-474b-8d45-4391e7d1097d" id="229baf29-d5e1-4792-b5b9-6e964462e4f8"> :</span> open approximation.<br />
Classification of Consonants<br />
<span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="a06bac30-831e-42d2-af67-8d120a2d1c09" id="9f4ad638-a086-420e-a2db-505874465f25">Consonantal</span> sounds are classified on the basis of (i) voicing, (ii) place of articulation, and (iii) manner of articulation.<br />
(i) Voicing. On the basis of voicing, sound can be classified into voiced and voiceless sounds. The voiced sounds in English are /b, d, g, v. ð, z, dз, m, n, ŋ, l, r, w, j/.<br />
All the <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="f2dd99c6-dc8f-4768-b4ab-f43a4dbf2996" id="6bd38b50-8bc7-43e7-9b8a-8aebef2d2d6c">vocoids</span> and semi-vowels are voiced sounds, whereas among the <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="f2dd99c6-dc8f-4768-b4ab-f43a4dbf2996" id="812a02eb-2530-48b8-9dc2-76e170144f73">consonants some</span> are voiced and some voiceless. If the vocal <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="e9f8121b-50b3-4767-b744-0c3d4a8e611f" id="6678f79f-2ed4-49e3-8d23-54f17a4acc77">cards</span> vibrate when a sound is produced, it is said to be voiceless.<br />
(ii) The Place of Articulation. Consonants are divided as given in the following table on the basis of the <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="4a5cac80-fb11-4f92-a712-c7f812b90706" id="a8766988-fada-4b67-a4f9-42602fe92699">articulatory</span> points at which the articulators actually touch, or are at their closest.<br />
The Classification of English Consonants according to the place of Articulation.<br />
Classification<br />
Articulators<br />
Examples<br />
Bilabial<br />
Upper lip and lower lip<br />
/p b m w/<br />
Dental<br />
Teeth and tip of tongue<br />
/<span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="8e511522-807f-4174-97d6-31cd4765ce18" id="707b6cff-6461-402a-9ea7-2068c04e192e">q</span> ð/<br />
<span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="07efc9af-7142-43aa-bf65-e761de33409d" id="6d1bd774-eea1-42ee-9b32-087192e72d81">Labio</span>-<span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="07efc9af-7142-43aa-bf65-e761de33409d" id="27b9be92-3dce-48d7-8ec5-12bf4581b8a7">dentel</span><br />
Lower lip and upper teeth<br />
/<span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="83aa6ef2-c9d8-48cf-af7e-c77dcc695ef2" id="93cd2054-2088-439e-947e-995a9d77e685">f</span> v/<br />
Alveolar<br />
<span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="b2bffb4e-f429-4152-980f-663708289a31" id="813c04c3-e6d0-44bb-af82-162289115fae">alveolar</span> (teeth) ridge and tip and blade of tongue<br />
/t d s z r k b/<br />
Post-alveolar<br />
Hard palate and tip of tongue<br />
/r/<br />
<span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="d1be3d5d-507d-4680-920e-da60f61749c2" id="66acc74a-0918-43db-93ef-ce6cecb447f1">Palato</span>-<span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="d1be3d5d-507d-4680-920e-da60f61749c2" id="9731ec11-5ab3-42b8-9e6b-53be6c1c71c7">aveloar</span><br />
Hard palate—alveolar and tip, blade and front of tongue<br />
/f/z/ò/dз/<br />
Palatal<br />
Hard palate and front of tongue<br />
/j/<br />
Velar<br />
Soft palate and back of tongue<br />
/<span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="ece070ab-51f3-4ad4-948f-0518ff42e693" id="b729a14a-b936-455d-b316-7d41cd29d4be">k</span> g ŋ/<br />
Glottal<br />
Glottis (vocal cords)<br />
/h/<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: large;">The Manner of Articulation    </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">       </span><br />
According to the manner of articulation, which describes the type of obstruction caused by the narrowing or closure of the articulators, the consonants can be divided into <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="4626df17-5c58-47c7-9856-ed933ef3c171" id="83fa39f2-9dd5-40da-a2f1-0c2a671c8acb">stops</span>. <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="9b6252c0-39b7-4c3f-ad0a-5b48c8232e8d" id="a5d6ead4-d561-4f1c-bf23-3c81f21dc956">affricates</span>, fricatives, nasals, rolls, laterals, and semi-vowels or frictionless <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="9b6252c0-39b7-4c3f-ad0a-5b48c8232e8d" id="7af19c4a-2421-4ee0-99b0-cc872e2046b1">continuants</span>. We shall discuss these one by one.<br />
<br />
(1) Stop. In the production of a stop, the oral and nasal passages arc closed simultaneously. The active and passive articulators come in contact with each <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="e32bc30d-201c-42b9-a2eb-9709609dd308" id="f7724a17-2cfb-4eba-bbcc-ac97b0699e3a">other forming</span> a stricture of complete closure and preventing the air from escaping through the mouth. The soft palate is raised and thus the nasal passage is also blocked. (This is also known as <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="3ad057e6-79fa-49a7-a325-be9770a15a80" id="d39cdea0-0f36-4f87-877e-68404f992b5a">velic</span> closure). The air behind the oral closure is compressed, and when the active articulator is removed from contact with passive one, the air escapes with an explosion. Stops are also known as mutes. <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="0b20a78d-9ba9-4e08-b65a-8082c170d7ad" id="b03743a9-e5b7-4efb-b242-78708d68968b">explosives</span>. <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="30592c6a-4f64-4db0-8ff4-70f0d891572e" id="dd95afef-3d31-4009-a721-54720c63888d">plosives</span> or occlusives. /<span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="aac0e6ed-6b9c-43d9-8ad6-bebe6eea1687" id="30b77c9d-4d41-45ce-9de5-4b946f175ea3">p</span>/ in pat and /b/ in hat are the examples of stops.<br />
<br />
(2) Affricate. If the stop is not held for any appreciable time and released slowly, we get an affricate rather than a <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="d74992f6-1f89-42f4-a5d6-b57c053a5543" id="f8e64d83-71a0-4a37-bcd0-dc26980cc1fe">plosive</span>, e.g. /tò/ in <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="0b741280-18f0-4145-b73a-838e79ed98c9" id="1eda6caf-9680-4884-8a88-93837491152e">chair</span> and /dз/ in jail.<br />
<br />
(3) Nasal. In a nasal <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="0458e02c-e74d-406b-a64b-2220b392cdc7" id="c5a8ee55-fd9b-4509-a925-83b1dfa3a9e9">contoid</span>, the breath stream is interrupted at some point in the oral cavity or at the lips, while being allowed to enter the nose and create resonance there. <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="81e97cec-f68a-4e1e-a6a2-715fc4d224dd" id="14d7f930-fdfa-4961-9a40-e162323ecbe2">Thus</span> a nasal is produced by a stricture of complete oral closure. The soft palate is lowered and the air passes through the nose. All nasal sounds are voiced. Examples /m, n, v/ in English.<br />
<br />
(4) Trill (or Rolled Consonants). In the production of a trill, the active articulator <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="4bcec4d7-9c91-4a23-a3f1-9a9680a01a78" id="0b622333-7b14-4388-b83d-fdcd7e0d73fd">taps</span> several times against the passive articulator. The stricture involved can be called a stricture of intermittent closure. Scottish /r/, for <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="61d4c84c-ad26-43fb-887d-ab31dc567975" id="650ae71a-7696-49af-9669-9ffb9d1f1223">example in</span> red, in which the tip of the tongue strikes against the teeth ridge a number of times, is called a trilled consonant.<br />
<br />
(5) Flap. For a flap the active articulator strikes the passive articulation once only. For example the /r/ in the English word <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="e8021dea-c75f-426b-940d-a83df6a04a20" id="39c278c3-0e1c-42c5-bf8f-267c36ce767f">very</span>, in which the tip of the tongue strikes against <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="e8021dea-c75f-426b-940d-a83df6a04a20" id="4d87045a-400d-4f60-a819-2cbae7287eea">teeth ridge</span> only once.<br />
<br />
(6) Lateral. Laterals are produced by a stricture of complete closure in the <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="b5edf7cc-b04a-47c3-a0bf-0f66cdb82d8a" id="0bbce232-95b5-4fae-9311-515d81ee4760">centre</span> of the vocal tract, but the air passes out every one or both <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="b5edf7cc-b04a-47c3-a0bf-0f66cdb82d8a" id="e8593786-82b2-4290-ba1e-4b7aac1266d8">side</span> of the tongue. For example, /I/ in late.<br />
<br />
(7) Fricative. In the production of a fricative consonant the stricture is one of close approximation. The active articulator and the passive articulator are so close to each other that passage between them is very narrow and the air passes through it with audible friction. Examples are /f/ in face, /v/ in vain /q/ in think, /ð/ in them, /s/ in <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="334efb37-f59b-41a9-a31b-c2fb8c1514d8" id="ba3f7cb7-f103-454e-839f-1b127e2a441d">sail</span>, /z/ in zero, /ò/ in <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="334efb37-f59b-41a9-a31b-c2fb8c1514d8" id="6149d05c-1593-406f-9207-9c2cfbac6127">ship</span>, /з/ in measure, /h/ in hat.<br />
<br />
(8) Frictionless <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="22e52eb5-adbc-402a-b9e7-41ef138edc74" id="83ce1da9-dd98-444f-9467-59d93486106d">Continuant</span>. In the production of a frictionless <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="9697decc-2df3-4fd4-987f-54ee12c70c4b" id="48168f8b-7297-4661-9dc2-1093d128a072">continuant</span> the stricture is that of open approximation. For <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="d147ec9b-b892-4ac2-a908-86c6b3b8faa2" id="4d2d78c3-2e3b-4f7f-b9d7-abc61248c377">example in</span> the production of /r/ in red, read, real, ready, the active articulator (tip of the tongue) is brought just behind the passive articulator (alveolar ridge) so that there is plenty of space between the two articulators, and the air passes between them without friction; and hence the term “frictionless <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="d147ec9b-b892-4ac2-a908-86c6b3b8faa2" id="451aa288-4660-4614-bd10-395759d75a8e">continuant</span>.”<br />
<br />
Gimson includes the English /r/ in words like red and read among the frictionless <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="bdf27c58-081b-4c0e-8ab2-6fa00abc822c" id="2de66eef-a349-4265-bfd6-661d824aa3bb">continuants</span>, but the English (r) also occurs as a fricative as in try, cry, ray, pray, <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="bdf27c58-081b-4c0e-8ab2-6fa00abc822c" id="efa2c472-5363-44ae-ace9-f8fb68816e55">grow</span>, very, sorry. Jones includes it in the list of fricatives and Gimson in the list of frictionless <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="8851fa57-7fba-4244-9308-719a6618353d" id="faf59f2b-0e43-437f-9975-4f9851c4e06a">continuants</span>.<br />
<br />
(9) <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="591a449e-10b9-4b73-ac60-30f2fd255a53" id="1d3371ea-120b-4f22-93db-3256a5b4481e">Semi-vowel</span>. A semi-vowel is a vowel glide functioning as a consonant i.e., as the C element in syllable structure. In terms of articulation semi-vowels are like vowels, but they don’t behave like vowels. <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="18864c7c-35de-4033-be46-3872e66fadc9" id="0b042a68-c5f6-44a1-bc92-4d00da2c86d3">Semi-vowels</span> are never stable; they can never be pronounced by themselves. They are sounds in transition. Examples are /j/ in yet and /w/ in wet. These are also called <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="96deabe1-e736-4c51-93cb-c2353e5890f3" id="e3a76207-2486-4394-89ed-e97f53a357fd">semiconsonants</span> too.<br />
<br />
(10) Fortis and <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="720156ef-9e64-4de8-8a56-cc2d9419a90a" id="47f592a4-2e75-42c3-bc51-b0df0a4e6910">Lenis</span>. When we have voiceless/voiced pair, the two sounds are also distinguished by the degree of breath force and muscular effort involved in the articulations. <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="d33976e1-eb7f-4aa9-8ab1-08c441cddc05" id="6c11cbbc-787e-4bcf-a0e4-3aeebf901475">e.g.</span>, is comparatively strong or <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="d33976e1-eb7f-4aa9-8ab1-08c441cddc05" id="a744bd64-560b-4cff-802b-873b0152bac1">fortis</span>, and z is comparatively weaker <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="d33976e1-eb7f-4aa9-8ab1-08c441cddc05" id="e6f52c9e-437a-4adc-870d-d3490892d59c">lenis</span>.<br />
<br />
<br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Vowels</span></h3>
Vowels may be defined with an open approximation without any obstruction, partial or complete, in the air passage. They are referred to as <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="211e91e0-38c8-4034-8a26-3ff3b4788996" id="36a62f14-46df-4b73-9b37-bd31532588db">vocoids</span> in phonetics. They can be described in terms of three variables:<br />
<br />
(1)  <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="0b9aaeb7-cbd7-4ecb-a36a-7dc661a9cea6" id="ede44147-a9f0-434a-a000-cc5f075bbf41">height</span> of tongue<br />
(2)  <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="b44ced35-5be2-4abe-8be8-0b7538bb8878" id="8266ccc3-da7a-4cbe-a106-fa483b7d1a06"><span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="1fa40fbc-bcb4-471a-b43b-349e6f47abb4" id="fda673bf-cbe5-4070-b4e0-520ebb358908">part</span></span> of the tongue which is raised or lowered<br />
(3)  <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="83e82f1e-3c24-4ee2-9664-df957e0713aa" id="53e8b1f7-034d-4b3e-84a5-896de3e7c081">lip</span>-rounding.<br />
<br />
In order to describe the vowels, we usually draw three points in the horizontal-axes: front, central and back, referring to the part of the tongue which is the highest. So we have<br />
<br />
i)    <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="d46309bc-d2a3-447c-bc77-6dacaf177b91" id="1dac7fd6-909d-4637-b344-dfda8fb36ec3">front</span> vowels, during the production of which the front of the tongue is raised towards the hard palate. For example, /<span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="d6470f95-cb1e-47f9-a6ed-93f227622513" id="9627a6f5-a513-4f91-b1b8-6347b0153885">i</span>, <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="d6470f95-cb1e-47f9-a6ed-93f227622513" id="e121ef2a-6ba8-4994-9f81-df84254057cf">i</span>:, e. æ/ in English as in sit, seat, set, and sat respectively.<br />
<br />
ii)   <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="5cee54b4-c786-4e0e-83ba-b38832d83f29" id="bdcf0780-3a79-4db9-9b39-f9fc80bfefb7">back</span> vowels, during the production of which the back of the tongue is raised towards the soft palate. For example /a:, *, *:, u, u<span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="67545513-65c1-42dc-9799-a959b5023a9f" id="e8ce684e-2a26-4bd4-b979-ad6374e2a192">:</span>/ in English as in cart, cot, caught, book and tool respectively.<br />
<br />
iii)  <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="8535c290-661e-4360-8faf-128d739bf539" id="d6ff28d3-d44d-402b-b66b-06df4bbb977b">central</span> vowels, during the production of which the central part of the tongue (the part between the front and the back) is raised. For example, /ә, ә:, Λ/ in English as in about, earth and but respectively.<br />
<br />
To describe the vowel sound we mention whether it is open or close, half-close or half-open, front or back or central, long or short, whether the tongue is tense or lax while the vowel is being pronounced, and whether lips are spread, neutral, open rounded, or close rounded. All English vowels are voiced. So, for every vowel, we must state that it is voiced:<br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: large;">Diphthongs</span><br />
<br />
From the point of view of their quality, vowel sounds are of two types<span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="09e19f75-4510-4a9d-989c-b71e46a2df39" id="aef13377-456c-4743-8feb-2095e0d53954"> :</span> monophthong and diphthong. Monophthongs are pure vowels and diphthongs are gliding vowels. ‘A vowel that does not change in quality’ may be called a monophthong; and a vowel sound with a continually changing quality may be called a diphthong.<br />
<br />
A pure vowel is one for which the organs of speech remain in a given position for an appreciable period of time. A diphthong is a vowel sound consisting of a deliberate, i.e. <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="81bb7145-2d16-4542-bed8-a8b0cf8e63e4" id="f30254a0-97b4-4add-a75a-41084ee92ed8">intentional</span> glide, the organs of speech starting <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="81bb7145-2d16-4542-bed8-a8b0cf8e63e4" id="bb2a657c-74e6-440f-a1a4-a0113fab5691">in</span> the position of one vowel and immediately moving in the direction of another vowel. A diphthong, moreover, consists of a single <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="691cde9e-6e8e-460e-8bae-ade7eb38330d" id="589fa147-31cc-492a-b193-48fad7ec3859">syllabic</span>––that is, the vowel-glide most be performed with a single impulse of the breath; if there is more than one impulse of breath, the ear perceives two separate syllables...<br />
––Peter MacCarthy, English Pronunciation.<br />
<br />
A diphthong, thus, always occupies one syllabic. If two adjacent vowels form the nuclei of two successive syllables, they are not a diphthong. For example the vowels in <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="7a40cfb4-72dc-49fc-a503-d35fa6462a35" id="26abaa5a-e1de-42e0-8161-560713a76cf8">bay</span>, boy, and <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="7a40cfb4-72dc-49fc-a503-d35fa6462a35" id="27e4a982-780c-4d3f-b24c-c5a555432673">buy</span> are diphthongs, but the vowels in doing are two different vowels since they belong to two different syllables.<br />
One end of the diphthong is generally more prominent than the other. Diphthongs are termed ‘decrescendo’ of FALLING if the first element is louder or more prominent than the second, and ‘crescendo’ or RISING if the second element is louder or more prominent than the first. All the English diphthongs are falling diphthongs, because in them the first <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="f3ddca1d-5783-4bb2-89b9-fd0d40ad1dec" id="df6b6dce-8a45-4c5a-abe3-dddb077a3b2a">clement</span> is louder or more prominent than the second clement.<br />
Diphthongs are represented in phonetic transcription by a sequence of two letters, the first showing the position of the organs of speech at the beginning of the glide, the second their position at the end. In the case of the ‘closing’ diphthongs the second letter indicates the point toward which glide (movement) is made.<br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: large;">Phonetic Transcription</span><br />
<br />
Phonetic transcription is a device in which we use several symbols in such a way that one symbol always represents one sound. It is also known as phonetic notation, it is an ‘attempt on paper, a record of the sounds that speakers make.’ By looking at an English word in its written form one cannot be sure of its pronunciation, whereas by looking at it in phonetic transcription one can be. Most of our phonetic transcriptions are phonemic transcriptions, that is, each symbol represents a phoneme, a distinct sound unit in language. A pair of square brackets <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="8d50892d-e2b7-4cdd-866d-d3a7ca7f010c" id="23bede4e-6a3c-4e62-ac89-e3bf247cd26f">[ </span><span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="8d50892d-e2b7-4cdd-866d-d3a7ca7f010c" id="1b440f15-06f9-4b41-ab00-406aa9657216">]</span> indicates a phonetic transcription: Phonemic transcriptions are enclosed within slant bars / /.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: large;">The Usefulness of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)</span><br />
<br />
The IPA gives us a uniform international medium of studying and transcribing the sounds of all the languages of the world. Many languages in the world have no orthographic (written) form at all. It has been made possible to study such languages with this alphabet. In other words, the IPA is ‘a precise and universal’ means (i.e. <span class="GINGER_SOFTWARE_mark" ginger_software_uiphraseguid="5a110bde-c9b1-4a36-bea9-2fb5686cce72" id="4be442f9-8fc5-431c-97d6-7350c93e8cc0">valid</span> for all languages) of writing down the spoken forms of utterances as they are spoken without reference to their orthographic representation, grammatical status, or meaning.<br />
As regards English, the IPA helps us in establishing and maintaining international intelligibility and uniformity in the pronunciation of English. With the help of the IPA we can easily teach the pronunciation of English or of any other language. The IPA has contributed a lot in the teaching and description of language. The teachers and learners of English can improve, and standardize their pronunciation and can overcome the confusion created by the spellings with the help of the international phonetic alphabet.<br />
<div>
<br /></div>
</div>

Phonetics The Study Of Speech Sounds

Phonetics The Study Of Speech Sounds Phonetics has been defined as the science of speech sounds. It is a branch of linguistics and deals with the sounds produced by human beings in their speech behav…

12 May 2014

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